I 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

/3^ 



AND 



ORGANIZATION 



OF THE 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



FOR THE USE OF 



AMERICAN TEACHERS AND NORMAL SCHOOLS 



JOHN T; PRINCE Ph.D. 

AGENT OF MASSACHUSETTS BOARD OF EDUCATION, AUTHOR OF ** COURSES OF 
STUDIES AND METHODS OF TEACHING " 



BOSTON 
LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 

10 MILK STREET 
1892 



^' ,.5r8 



Copyright, 1891, by John T. Prince 



All Rights Reserved 



Methods of Instruction and Organization of the 
Schools of Germany 



PREFACE 



This book is intended to give a general idea of the 
organization of the schools of Germany, and such a 
view of their inner working as may be suggestive and 
helpful to teachers. If the purpose were to give a 
complete report of the schools, to show their character 
as a whole, and to pass judgment upon them, it would 
be necessary to give fuller extracts from existing laws 
than are given here, and to go into details of manage- 
ment and methods which the limits of a single volume 
would not permit. 

The aim has been to give important features of organi- 
zation only, and to confine the statement of methods to 
what is best and most useful for American teachers to 
know. Nearly every school exercise noted is one which 
has a special point of value to teachers. Unprofitable 
details of lessons, and, so far as possible, repetitions of 
the same or similar work of teachers, have been avoided. 

The fragmentary and incomplete character of the 
notes of lessons heard, is accounted for from the fact that 
they were copied from my note-book almost exactly as 

iii 



IV PREFACE 

they were written in the recitation-room. I preferred 
not to revise them or put them in more complete form 
lest I should give an incorrect report of what I saw. 

Information relating to statistics and organization of 
the schools has been derived from several sources ; 
from teachers and other school officers, and from various 
school laws, courses of study, catalogues, etc., including 
S^indtx's Lexikonder Pddagogik, 1889; Giebe's Verord- 
nungen betrejfend das gesanimte Volksschulwesen in 
Preussen (Glebe's Verordnungeii) ; Preussische Statis- 
tik lOi (Preus. Stat. loi) ; Y^ockXo's Lehrplan fiir die ein- 
fackeit Volksschulen des Konigreichs Sachsen^ DresdeUy 
1890 {Lekrplan Sachsen) ; Pddagogischer Yahresbericht^ 
1889, von A. Richter {Pad. Yahresbericht) ; Gesetz ueber 
die Gymnasien, Realschulen und Seminare^ von R. GotZy 
Leipzig, I ZjJ (Gotz's Gesetz) ; to which reference is 
made in abbreviated forms as noted in the parentheses. 
Other references are given in full. 

Reference to sources of information has not in all 
cases been made, owing to the fact that some of the 
notes were taken with no thought of putting them in 
permanent form. 

Some of the chapters consist of a revision and ex- 
tension of articles which originally appeared in the 
New England Journal of Education, Atlantic Monthly, 
and Educational Review, whose publishers have gen- 
erously consented to their use in the present form. 

Special acknowledgments are due to my colleague, 



1 



PREFACE V 

Prof. George A. Walton, who has kindly assisted in 
reading and correcting the proof-sheets ; also, for a 
similar service, to Dr. Larkin Dunton, Head Master of 
the Boston Normal School, and Miss Margaret K. 
Smith, of the Oswego, N. Y., Normal School, whose 
knowledge of the German schools has enabled them to 
give valuable suggestions. With their approval of the 
book so far as its general accuracy is concerned, it is 
offered to the profession with the confident belief that 
it will meet the wants of those who desire material in 
small compass for the study of the current history of 
education in Germany. Of special value will such 
material be to members of normal schools and read- 
ing-circles, to whom, as well as to the general reader, 
the marginal topics will be of great convenience. 

J. T. P. 

January i, 1892. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. ORGANIZATION i 

Kinds of Schools. — Administration. — Supervision. — 
Qualifications of Teachers. — Appointment of Teachers. — 
Female Teachers. — School Buildings and Furnishings. 

— Courses of Studies. — Classification. — Terms and Ses- 
sions. — Recitation Periods and Recesses. — Statistics and 
Reports. — Examinations and Promotions. — Admission of 
Pupils. — The Sexes in High and Elementary Schools.— 
School Attendance. 

IT. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 23 

Text-Books. — Reference Books. — Apparatus. — Pro- 
motion of Teachers with Classes. — Salaries of Teachers. — 
Tenure of Office. — Pensions. — Teachers' Associations. 

— Outside Duties of Teacher. — Overcrowded Schools. — 
Home Study. — School Discipline. — Outside Discipline. 

— Visitors. 

III. NORMAL SCHOOLS 35 

Size. — Number of Teachers. — Class of Patrons. — 
Qualifications for Admission. — Course of Studies. — Nor- 
mal Schools for Females. — State Aid. — Fitting Schools. 
Practice Schools. 

IV. HIGH SCHOOLS 44 

Gymnasien. — Realschulen. — Realgymnasien. — Pro- 
gymnasien. — Realprogymnasien. — Oberrealschulen. — 
Hohere Biirgerschulen. — Hohere Madchen Schulen. — 
Middle Schools. — Number of Pupils. — Recent Changes. 

— Latin and Greek. — Modern Languages. — Science. — 
School Circulars. 

vii 



Vlll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

V. PRIVATE, INDUSTRIAL, AND CONTINUATION 

SCHOOLS 59 

Kinds of Private Schools. — Conditions of Maintenance. 

— Number of Private Schools. — Kindergarten. — Nurs- 
eries. — Trade Schools. — Manual Training Schools. — 
Leipsic School. — Continuation Schools. — Subjects of In- 
struction. — Times of Sessions. — Discipline. — Attend- 
ance. — Schools for Girls. — Schools in Berlin. 

VI. ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 68 

Graded Schools. — Partially Graded Schools. — Un- 
graded Schools. — Course of Studies. — Tuition. — Sexes. 

— General Characteristics. 

VII. OBSERVATION LESSONS AND ELEMENTARY 

SCIENCE -]-] 

Plans for Early Object Lessons. — Plans for Lessons in 
Natural History. — Topical Outlines. — Objects Sought. — 
Relation to Other Studies. — Basis for Scientific Study. — 
Ethical Treatment of Subjects. — Expression of Thoughts. 

— The Hat. — Common Objects. — Lesson on Plants. — 
Lesson on Leaves and Blossoms. — Lesson on Birds. — 
Lesson on the Beaver. — Lesson on Angle Worm and 
Insects. — Lessons on Crab and Worm. — Observation, Ex- 
perience, and Information. — The Surrounding Country. — 
Model Lesson on the Hazel-bush. — Physics. — Topics 
and Methods. — Illustrative Lesson in Physics. 

VIII. READING 96 

Reading-Books. — Reading- Frames. — Classification. — 
Methods of Teaching Beginners. — Illustrative Lessons. — 
Phonic Method. — Normal Word Method. — Word and 
Sentence Method. — Reading: Mechanical, Analytical, and 
.^sthetical. — Time Given to Reading. — Patriotism in 
the Reading-Class. — History in Connection vv^ith Read- 
ing. — Study of Literature. — Method of Awakening 
Thought and Interest. — From Expression to Thought. — 
Cultivation of Taste. — Fables and Fairy Tales. 



CONTENTS ix 



CHAPTER 

IX. LANGUAGE 



ARITHMETIC 



PAGE 
114 



Language in Every Recitation. — Text-Books and Blank- 
Books. — Syllabus of Work Prescribed. — Writing. — Use 
of Pen and Ink. — Blank Writing-Books. — Use of Ger- 
man Script. — Early Practice. — Dictation Exercises. — 
Spelling and Derivations. — Recitation from Memory.— 
Original Compositions. —Technical Grammar. — Illustra- 
tive Exercises. 

X. GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 132 

Course of Studies. — Books and Apparatus. — Use of 
Pictures. — Home Geography. — Plan Drawing. — Mould- 
ing. — Thorough Study of Germany. — Illustrative Les- 
sons. — Cause and Effect. — Study of Foreign Countries. 
— Course in History. — Lecturing. — Patriotism. — Biog- 
raphy.— Memorizing of Dates. — Geography in Connec- 
tion with History Pictures. 



147 



Course of Studies. — Text-Books and Apparatus. — 
Work of Each Year. — Illustrative Lessons in Primary 
Grades. — Middle Grades. — Higher Grades. — Short 
Processes. — Relative Measures. — Systematic Reviews. — 
Mental Work. 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. 171 

Drawing. — Manual Training : — Hand-work for 
Girls.— Hand-work for Boys. — Singing : — Ends Sought. 

— Teachers. — Musical Instruments. — Singing by Note. 

— Part-Singing. — Singing in Higher Grades. — Soft and 
Low Tones. — Connection with other Studies. — Physical 
Training. — Religious Instruction. 

THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 183 

Interest in Herbartian Philosophy. — End of Educa- 
tion. — Instruction Defined. — Kinds of Interest. — Sub- 
jects of Instruction. — Selection and Arrangement of 
Subjects. — Concentration. — Formal Steps of Instruction. 

— Illustrative Examples. 



X CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIV. REFORMS 205 

Supervision. — Relations between Church and School. — 
Lessening of Local Powers. — Elementary Schools. — 
Teachers of High Schools. — Conference on School Re- 
form. — Elementary School Reform. — School Terms and 
Vacations. — Changes in the German Language. — Near- 
sightedness. — Societies for the Reform of German 
Schools. — The New German School. 

XV. AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS . . .216 

Influence of Example. — Educational Systems of Ger- 
many, Austria, and Switzerland. — Influence of Educational 
Leaders. — Qualification of Teachers. — Normal School 
Course. — Needful Requirements for Teaching. — Per- 
manence of Teaching Force. — Tenure of Teacher's 
Office. — Plan of Studies. — School Attendance. — Com- 
pulsory Laws. — School Supervision. — Influence of the 
Teacher. — Personality of the Teacher in the School- 
room. — Characteristics of Teachers. — Apparatus. — 
Museums. — Needed Changes in Subjects of Instruction. 
— Elements of Weakness in German Schools. — Condi- 
tion and Prospects of American Schools. 



V'; 

I 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER I 

ORGANIZATION 

There are in Germany both private and public 
schools. The private schools are established and sup- 
ported by private individuals under a certain Kinds of 
amount of governmental supervision, and S^^°°^^- 
are of all kinds and grades. The public schools are 
supported wholly or in part at public expense, and 
are controlled by the state or municipal government. 
They may be classified as follows: — 

1. Normal schools {L ekrer- Seminar e) in which teach- 
ers for the elementary schools are trained. 

2. High schools including {a) classical schools 
{Gymnasien) in which especial emphasis is placed upon 
Latin and Greek ; {b) Non-classical schools {Realschtilen) 
in which the sciences are chiefly taught ; {c) Schools of 
various kinds in which the courses of studies of the 
Gymnasien or Realschulen are modified in some degree. 

3. Elementary schools known under various names 



2 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

and quite generally designated as people's schools 
{Volkschulen) . 

The organization and characteristics of these and 
other schools will be treated in subsequent chapters. 

The chief power in the administration of educational 
affairs lies in the central government of each state. 
Adminis- The details in the execution of this power 
tration. differ somewhat in the various states ; and 

yet, as would be expected, there is a quite general 
uniformity of practice in the main features of school 
administration throughout the empire. In the organiza- 
tion of school affairs Prussia has to some extent doubt- 
less served as an example for other neighboring states. 
Especially at the time of and since the federation of the 
empire has the influence of the larger state been most 
powerful. To show therefore in small compass the 
most common characteristics of the administration of 
the schools in all of the states, the details of the admin- 
istration of Prussian schools only need be given. 

In Prussia the highest power employed in directing 
school affairs is the Minister of Instruction^ who is 
a member of the government. He has as representa- 
tives and advisers (all together being called the Minis- 
termm) an under secretary and a number of councillors 
who constitute four distinct councils, one council having 
in charge church affairs, another medical affairs, a third 

1 The exact title of this official is Minister der geistlichen, Unterrichts- und 
Medizin alangelegenheiten. 



^ ORGANIZATION 3 

matters relating to the universities, art and higher 
institutions of learning, and a fourth matters relating 
to normal schools and people's schools. 

The Councillors having in charge educational affairs 
are skilled men, — one for universities ; three, one of 
whom is a Catholic, for higher institutions ; and three, 
one of whom is a Catholic, for normal and people's 
schools. Immediately under the Ministerium are the 
universities, technological schools, commissions for ex- 
amining teachers of higher institutions, and other exami- 
nation commissions, the normal gymnastic Institute, art 
academies, the great art collections, etc. Towards all 
other ,schools the state's relations are exercised through 
the provincial school boards ^ which have in charge the 
higher schools, and the district governments {Regier- 
U7tgs-besirke)y thirty-six in number, which have the 
people's schools and a greater part of the girls' high 
schools to look after. The district governments also 
have supervision of all private institutions, at least so 
far as to see that the provisions of their charters are 
complied with. The provincial school board has charge 
of all institutions, public and private, in Berlin. 

Of the higher schools some are supported wholly by 
the general government, some by both general and 
local governments together, and some wholly by local 
governments and private persons or societies. Over 
all these institutions the provincial school boards have 

1 There are fourteen provinces in the kingdom. 



4 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

supervision, either independently or in co-operation with 
others. 

In addition to provincial and district administration, 
there is a local administration which has mainly to do 
with the external affairs of the schools, such as attend- 
ing to repairs of buildings, fixing school fees, and, in 
certain cases, nominating teachers. For private and 
municipal schools the local school authorities nominate 
teachers, but confirmation is always left to the provin- 
cial or district authorities. 

In the cities and in regularly laid out districts in the 

country there are school inspectors who are selected 

generally for distinguished service as teachers, 

Supervision. 

upon whom devolve certain fixed responsibil- 
ities and duties. Saxony, for example, — a kingdom with 
about the same area and population as Massachusetts, — 
is divided outside of the larger cities into twenty-five 
districts. In each of these districts there is a superin- 
tendent, — or, as he is called, school-inspector, — who 
has to make periodical visits to the schools of his dis- 
trict. In these visits he is required to direct his atten- 
tion especially (I quote from the laws ^ governing his 
duties) (i) to the observance of the law in relation to 
school attendance ; (2) to the industry and demeanor of 
the teacher, and to the discipline, order, and cleanliness 
of the pupils ; (3) to the adherence to the plan of study, 
to the methods of instruction, and to the progress of 

1 Das Volksschulwesen im Konigreich Sachsen. — Leipzig, 1876 A. p. 30. 



ORGANIZATION C 

the pupils in general, and in each subject; (4) to the 
apparatus used, and the elaboration of the course of 
study ; (5) to the scientific studies and additional em- 
ployment of the teacher ; (6) to the economical man- 
agement of the school, particularly in respect to the 
prompt payment of the teacher's salary, and the main- 
tenance of the school regulations ; (7) to the occupations 
of the inhabitants of the place ; (8) to the efficiency of 
the local school board. It is his duty to make an exam- 
ination of the records of the local school board, and he 
has the right to cause the president to call a meeting of 
that board. He is obliged to visit the private schools, 
to see that the conditions of their establishment are 
complied with, and that they do not go beyond those 
conditions. He has to fill temporarily vacant places, 
and may give temporary leave of absence to teachers. 
He is obliged to call a meeting at least once a year, of 
all the teachers of his district, for the purpose of giving 
them directions. Finally, he must make a report yearly 
to the highest school board, giving the condition of the 
schools, and a statement of his work, together with 
statistics embracing every phase of education in his 
district. These and other regulations governing the 
official duties of the superintendent are definite and 
quite minute. In spite of the minuteness of his inquiry 
into the work of teachers, there seems to be little or no 
interference with the individuality of teachers, as will 
be shown later on. The inspector's visits to a given 



6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

school are sometimes a year or two apart ; but the in- 
spection, when it is made, is most thorough. I was per- 
mitted to read one of the inspector's reports made to a 
district board in Saxony ; and the details respecting the 
condition of each school and the methods employed by 
each teacher were very minutely and carefully stated. 
In Prussia, in addition to duties just enumerated, the dis- 
trict school inspector has to pass judgment upon plans 
of school buildings and of alterations ; to ascertain 
whether the local school inspector performs his pre- 
scribed duties ; to attend to the supplying of school 
libraries with good books ; to look after families of 
deceased teachers, and in general to stand between the 
government and lower school officers both in issuing 
government decrees and in reporting to the government 
what is done or what is omitted. It should be said in 
passing that not all the districts of Prussia are super- 
vised by professional superintendents, or even by men 
whose entire time is given to the duties of their 
office. 

In country districts there are local school inspectors, 
who visit the schools and have certain supervisory 
duties in the elementary schools. They are generally 
clergymen, who serve as supervisors without pay. Their 
duties are mainly advisory, relating to examinations, 
religious instruction, courses of study, substitute teach- 
ers, and matters of local interest. In some particulars 
their duties are connected with those of the district 



ORGANIZATION 7 

inspector, who, on account of the size of his district, is 
not able to reach all the schools easily or frequently. 

In addition to the supervision which is made by dis- 
trict and local school inspectors, there is constant over- 
sight by principals of the work done in large schools. 
The number of recitations required to be heard by assist- 
ant teachers ranges from twenty-four to thirty-two a 
week, while the principal has, as a rule, to hear but 
twelve a week. The time not thus employed is given 
to making the required statistics, and to overseeing the 
work of his assistants. 

All schools of every kind share the advantage of 
rigid state requirements for the qualifications of teach- 
ers. The tests are based chiefly upon exam- Qualifications 
inations which are conducted by commissions °^ Teachers, 
consisting generally of representatives of the higher 
and local school boards, principals and teachers of 
schools, and specialists for drawing, gymnastics, etc. 
No teacher of any kind — not even a teacher in a 
private family — is permitted to teach unless he holds 
a certificate from an examination commission, or is 
permitted under its rules to teach temporarily. 

In Prussia ^ an examination is given to the graduates 
of the normal schools at the close of their course to 
test their fitness to teach for a limited time in the 
elementary schools. Other persons than normal gradu- 

1 From Glebe's Verordnungen, p. i-8. The Prussian plan of examina- 
tions is not unlike that of the other states. 



8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



I 



ates may take this examination, but the nature of the 
examination prevents any considerable number from 
attempting it. As a matter of fact, there are very few 
teachers of elementary schools at present who are not 
graduates of the normal school course. The examina- 
tion consists of three parts — a written, an oral, and a 
practical test. The written test, in addition to questions 
in arithmetic, geometry, geography, history, and natural 
history, consists of the composition of a choral and two 
essays, one upon some subject connected with religious 
instruction for which two hours are given, and one upon 
some other subject selected by the examining board for 
which four hours are given. Two translations from, and 
into Latin, French, or English are voluntary. 

The practical test consists of a class-exercise with 
pupils, of which a written analysis is required, and for 
the preparation of which two days are allowed. The 
oral examination may be upon all subjects taught in the 
normal school course. Jewish candidates are not 
required to pass in religion. Clear and exact answers 
to all questions are required. If a candidate fails to 
pass in either religion, language, or arithmetic, or in any 
three of the other subjects, he does not receive a 
certificate. The certificate permits the holder to 
receive a temporary appointment as teacher of any 
elementary school. 

Not earlier than two years and not later than five years 
after the first examination a second examination is given 



ORGANIZATION 9 

to candidates who desire to receive a permanent appoint- 
ment. This examination is given by the same board 
which gave the first examination, and consists of written, 
oral, and practical tests as before. Three written essays 
are required: one upon a subject connected with school 
management, one relating to religious instruction, and 
one relating to instruction in one of the other elemen- 
tary school branches, — all to be written under the 
inspection of a member of the examining commission. 
The practical test is a class exercise as before, the 
subject of which is announced the day before. The 
oral examination is upon the history of education, 
principles of education, school management and methods 
of teaching the various subjects required to be taught. 
The work of the candidates in the several subjects is 
marked as before: ^' very good,'' ^^ good,'' ^^ sufficient," or 
''not stfficient." Candidates whose class exercise is 
marked, '' 7iot stfficient" are rejected. Results in other 
subjects are marked and counted as in the first examina- 
tion. To those who successfully pass this examination, 
certificates are given entitling them to teach perma- 
nently and to receive a definite appointment. 

Those candidates who at the first examination are 
marked ''good" in religion, language, arithmetic, and 
the 7r^/ studies (geography, history, and natural history), 
or instead of the real studies a foreign language, and who 
are marked "good" in all subjects given in the second 
examination, are entitled to teach in the lower classes 



lO SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

of the middle schools and of higher schools for 
girls. 

Other and more severe examinations are given to 
candidates for the position of teacher in the middle and 
higher grades of middle schools and higher schools for 
girls, and also for the principalship of elementary schools. 

Candidates^ for the position of teacher in high 
schools {GymTiasien^ Realgymnasien, Oberrealschiilen^ 
and Jwheren Burgerschtden) are examined by " scientific 
examination commissions " consisting of seven members, 
one for each of the principal subjects in which the 
candidates are examined. 

Candidates are required to have graduated from 
a gymnasium or Realgymnasiiim^ and to have studied 
three years in a university. The examination is written 
and oral. Besides a brief biography written in Latin, 
or in French or English, candidates have two or three 
essays to write upon given subjects, being allowed 
six weeks' time for each essay. In certain cases the 
dissertation written to secure the doctor's degree in 
the university is received in lieu of the essays above 
mentioned. Severe oral and written tests are given 
in the subjects selected by the candidates as main 
subjects, while in other branches, notably philosophy, 
pedagogics, German language and literature, and reli- 
gion, candidates are obliged to prove their effici- 

1 Information here given is taken from Sander's Lexikon der P'ddagogik ; 
Article: Preussen. 



ORGANIZATION 1 1 

ency. Having received a certificate — conditional or 
unconditional — indicating his fitness for one or another 
position, the candidate is obliged to spend a certain 
period of time in a gymnasium or Realgymnasium under 
the direction of the principal before he can receive a 
permanent appointment. Formerly the time spent in 
practice was oiflte year, being called a trial year {Probe- 
jahr). In 1882 the trial period was extended to two 
years, after which candidates pass another examination, 
in which they show that their time has been profitably 
spent in the observation and practice of good methods 
of teaching. In 1889 it was decreed that seven peda- 
gogical seminaries should be established in every prov- 
ince, to be connected with the Gymnasien. A candidate 
for the position of teacher in a gymnasium is expected 
to spend a year in the seminary under the direction 
of a gymnasium director. During this trial year of 
teaching he is paid a small amount by the government. 
There are examinations for teachers of abnormal 
children, — idiots, blind, deaf and dumb, etc. ; also for 
teachers of special subjects, such as drawing, sewing, 
gymnastics, etc. These examinations are quite general 
in character and very thorough. In gymnastics, for 
example, the examination is oral and written, and 
covers various subjects, including anatomy, physiology, 
a description of apparatus and movements, and, for 
candidates who have not passed the regular teachers' 
examination, other subjects of elementary instruction. 



12 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

It is not feasible, were it advisable, to give in detail 
here the various ways of making appointments in dif- 
Appointment Cerent parts of the empire. A few of the 
of Teachers. jjjQgt noteworthy items only are given. Ap- 
pointments are made by the government ; i.e., by boards 
representing the government, but nominations for pri- 
vate and municipal schools are madfe by the local 
boards. These local boards in sending their nomi- 
nations may state their preferences, but can send the 
names only of those who have passed the required 
examinations. In Prussia teachers are permitted to 
leave their schools only at the close of a term, and 
must give three months' notice of their intention to 
leave, unless excused by the school board from such 
notice. 

Certain appointments of elementary teachers are 
made for three years, and within that time the teachers 
so appointed are not permitted to resign. Other ap- 
pointments are made for a longer or shorter time by the 
provincial or government boards. 

The number of female teachers in Germany has gradu- 
ally increased within a few years ; yet in 1886 in the 
Female entire empire but little more than a tenth 

Teachers. ^f ^^^ the teachers were females, largely 
employed in the lower grades of the elementary schools. 
Custom varies somewhat in the employment of married 
women as teachers. In some places no married women 
are appointed, and as soon as a female teacher marries 



ORGANIZATION I3 

she must give up her position. In other places, as in 

Baden, married women may be employed as teachers 

whenever their family cares do not interfere with their 

work. 

Most of the schoolhouses of Germany were built 

before the present generation. As a rule, therefore, they 

are poor, and the schoolrooms are small and 

School Build- 
poorly ventilated. Occasionally there is an ings and 

r 1 -1 1 ^ • 1 r ^ Fumishiiigs. 

arrangement of the wmdows by which fresh 
air is admitted without falling directly upon the pupils' 
heads ; but generally, with the exception of a few new 
buildings, no means of carrying away the impure air is 
provided. The seats and desks are of the plainest kind, 
frequently being rude desks several feet long, with plain 
board seats — a pattern which existed in our country 
schools forty years ago. 

The blackboards are literally black boards, and the 
amount of surface in a room is very meagre compared 
with what is provided here. One blackboard, three or 
four feet wide and five or six feet long, is all that will 
be found in most schoolrooms. Occasionally two such 
boards will be found, sometimes with an arrangement 
for drawing up. Moistened sponges are quite generally 
used for cleaning the boards ; thus there is avoided the 
dust so common in our schoolrooms. 

As a rule, the walls of the schoolrooms are unadorned 
with pictures, save one or two portraits. The portrait 
of Luther everywhere abounds both in the schoolrooms 



14 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

and in the homes of protestant Germany. In many 
schoolrooms also there is a portrait of the Emperor. 
The latter is required by law in Prussia. 

A general plan of studies is issued by the minister 
of instruction or corresponding head of educational 
affairs in each state of Germany ; and this gen- 
Studies, eral plan is elaborated by masters of schools, 
subject to the approval of the district school-inspectors. 
The general plans issued by the government specify the 
subjects of instruction and the time to be given to each 
subject. They also give general directions as to methods 
of teaching. 

More will be said in subsequent chapters of the 
courses of studies for the various schools. 

The graded schools of cities and large towns are 

classified not unlike similar schools in this country ; i.e., 

there is a separate class with one teacher in 

Classification. t i i i 

every room. 1 saw no large schoolrooms 

with small recitation rooms adjoining, as are sometimes 

seen here. In some places there is an approach to the 

departmental plan of teaching : a teacher, for example, 

who is especially successful in teaching natural science 

gives a portion of his time to that subject in several 

rooms of the building, still keeping general charge of 

his own room. This practice is more common and 

is carried farther in the higher than in the lower 

schools. 

The schools are in session from forty-two to forty-five 



ORGANIZATION 1 5 

weeks in the year, separated into four terms of from 
nine to twelve weeks each. The vacations „ 

Terms and 

are from one to four weeks in length, gener- Session*, 
ally occurring at Easter, midsummer, Whitsuntide, and 
Christmas.^ 

In the schools of cities and larger villages there 
is a single grade in a room, and the pupils of each grade, 
except the lowest, are generally reciting every hour of 
the day. Six hours a day are thus given, — four hours 
in the morning and two in the afternoon, with an inter- 
mission from five to fifteen minutes between recitations. 
The hours for school sessions are in summer from seven 
to eleven o'clock a.m. ; in winter, from eight o'clock a.m. 
to twelve M. ; and in all parts of the year, from two to 
four o'clock P.M. The sessions of the lower grades are 
shortened somewhat, the morning session sometimes 
being but two or three hours in length. In some places 
the higher schools, and in Berlin all schools, have but 
one session of five or six hours in the day.^ In Berlin 
the school day for pupils of the lower grades is but four 
hours long. 

There are in most schools where two sessions are held 
four recitation periods in the forenoon and two in the 



1 The school year generally begins after the Easter vacation. In Bavaria by 
recent ministerial decree the Realgymnasien school year begins September loand 
ends July 14. 

* In many parts of Germany local inspectors and principals are authorized to 
dismiss pupils at noon for the day whenever at eleven o'clock A.M. the thermometer 
registers 22° Reaumur (about 8i>i»'' Fahrenheit.) 



l6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

afternoon. Between the periods there is a recess of 

a few minutes, givinsr an avera2:e of about 
Recitation > & & & 

Periods and fifty minutes to each recitation. This is 
Recesses. 

generally the arrangement in graded schools 

of all grades. In the lowest grades there is frequently 
given some variety of work during a period, and some- 
times pupils of such grades recite in sections or groups 
of a dozen or more. 

In ungraded schools the same general plan of long 
recitation periods prevails, but the period in some sub- 
jects is broken by the adaptation of work to pupils of 
different ages or capacities. 

Attached to all schools are playgrounds where chil- 
dren stay during recesses and before school under the 
care of at least one teacher. Sometimes the children 
spend an entire recess in marching under the guidance 
of a teacher. In many schools, I saw older pupils acting 
as monitors during the recesses and while the classes 
were filing to and from the playground. They seemed, 
in some instances, to have authority to command, and 
even to punish by boxing the children's ears. This, 
however, may have been a self-assumed prerogative. 

The ordinary teacher needs to spend but little time 
upon statistics of any kind. I saw no signs of marking 
Statistics ^^^ attainment of pupils by percentages, or 
and Reports, ^f elaborate monthly reports, or of the dozen 
other things which vex the life of some American 
teachers. There are quite extended statistics con- 



ORGANIZATION 1 7 

cerning the parentage, birthplace, religion, etc., of all 
pupils, but they are made out, kept, and reported by the 
principals and not by assistant teachers. 

Books for recording absence and tardiness of pupils 
are kept by all teachers. In some schools I noticed the 
following plan for marking absence and tardiness : if 
a pupil is not present at the beginning of the session, a 
dot is placed against his name ; if he does not appear 
during the session, the dot is prolonged into a ver- 
tical line ; and if no good excuse for the absence is 
given, the line is crossed. 

All teachers keep another book in which is placed a 
record of what is taught each day in every subject ; 
this record is brief and always, so far as I saw, was made 
by subjects. Thus at the end of the term or year may 
be seen a complete record of what is done by each 
class. 

In many schools, and perhaps in all, reports indi- 
cating in a general way the standing of pupils in each 
subject of study are sent to parents. These reports are 
sent not oftener than twice a term, and are marked 
by figures or letters which show that the pupil is 
either very poor^ poor, fair, or excellent in any given 
subject. Teachers of ungraded schools and princi- 
pals of graded schools in Prussia are obliged by law 
to keep a history of the district in which the school is 
situated. 

Examinations may be said to have a different place in 



1 8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

the schools of Germany from what they have in our 
schools. The public examinations which 

Exami- 
nations and occur at the close of the school year may be 
Promotions. 

attended by the public, but, consisting as 
they do largely of rhetorical exercises and singing, they 
show little of the real work of the school. 

Class examinations, which in the higher schools 
occur once or twice a year, are oral and are attended by 
members of the school board and teachers of the 
school. The examination of each class is conducted by 
the teacher in charge, but the principal of the school 
and other visitors are expected to ask questions. If 
one of these examinations which I attended is a fair 
sample, they are most thorough and searching. 

Great emphasis is laid upon the 'leaving exami- 
nations " which occur at the close of the courses in 
higher schools. These examinations are generally 
very difficult and comprehensive. In the gymnasium 
and RealscJmle they determine the student's fitness for 
the university and technological school. The gradua- 
tion examinations in the normal school are oral and 
written, and must be passed before permission is given 
to teach.^ 

There are occasional written tests in the high 
schools, and they no doubt assist in determining the 
pupils' ability to go into a higher grade. Apart from 
these I could discover no '' examinations for promotion, " 

1 For particulars concerning these and Qther examinations, see pages 7-1 1. 



ORGANIZATION 



19 



SO common with us. Promotions are in the hands of 
the principal, who is guided in his judgment by the 
teacher's opinion of the pupils' merits. In the common 
schools, failure to pass into a higher grade seems to be 
much more infrequent than with us. Seldom is a boy 
or girl found who has not made the required preparation 
for confirmation at the end of the eighth year in school, 
the time allowed for the completion of the course. One 
is struck with the uniformity of age of pupils in the 
various grades, rarely a year apart instead of two or 
three years as with us. Children enter school at six 
years of age and leave at fourteen, rarely at fifteen. 

One cause of regularity in promotions may be the 
enforced attendance of all pupils during the entire 
school year. 

The age at which children are obliged to begin at- 
tendance at school in most states is six years, and the 
time of admission is generally the beginning Admission 
of the term after the Easter vacation. of Pupils. 

By reference to the chapter on high schools it will 
be seen that girls and young women do not have the 
advantages of education that boys and young ,pjjQ ^^^^^ i^ 
men have. There are seven kinds of public ^l^^ ^°^ 

^ Elementary 

high schools for boys and only one for girls. Schools. 
In Prussia there were, in 1886, 1,271 public high schools 
for boys, and only 185 schools of the same kind for girls. 
In the courses of studies it will be seen that girls are 
not permitted to study Latin, Greek, or higher mathe- 



20 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

matics in the public school, and that but little provision 
is made for the study of science. 

The above figures apply to public schools only. There 
are a few private girls' schools in which the study of 
Latin and Greek is permitted. 

Young women are not allowed to matriculate as 
students in the universities, nor, except in a very few 
of them and this by permission of the professors, are 
they permitted to attend the lectures. This privilege 
is granted in the Leipsic university, but it is accepted 
only by a few young women and those largely Ameri- 
cans. 

In the graded elementary schools the girls are 
taught generally in separate classes, except in some of 
the lower classes where the boys and girls are together. 
In ungraded schools the boys and girls are generally 
taught together. 

School attendance is compulsory for all children 
between the ages of five or six and fourteen, or until 
School certain studies are completed. The time for 

such attendance is the entire time in which 
the schools are in session, and no one is excused 
from attendance except children of unsound bodies or 
minds, and children whose parents or guardians give 
them at home the same education which they would 
receive in school. 

The school authorities and the police work together 
in enforcing the laws. Lists of children of school age 



ORGANIZATION 21 

are in the hands of the school authorities and police. 
In Prussia a list of absentees, with cause of absence, is 
sent to the police board at stated times. 

Although truants are wrought upon in all possible 
ways, even to being sent to a reform or truant school, 
the parents or guardians are generally held accountable 
for their children's absence from school, and are pun- 
ished with a fine or imprisonment for a violation of the 
law. In Prussia a parent or guardian is fined from ten 
Pfennigs (two and one-half cents) to a Mark (twenty-five 
cents) for each day of his child's unexcused absence 
from school ; and, in case the fine is not paid immedi- 
ately, the parent may be imprisoned from three hours 
to one day. Instead of imprisonment the person fined 
may work the same length of time for the benefit of 
the Commune. Employers allowing children to work 
during school hours are fined from one to one hun- 
dred and fifty Marks, or imprisoned not exceeding 
fifteen days. 

The following facts ^ show the thoroughness with 
which the compulsory laws of Prussia are enforced. 

Statistics of School Attendance, Dec. i, 1885. 

Whole number of children obliged to attend school 5)333>456 
Number in attendance upon public schools . . 4,838,247 
Number in attendance upon private and other schools 299,280 
Number of children not yet in the school, or of chil- 
dren who have left — all for good reasons . . 170,439 

1 Preus. Stat. loi, p. 10. 



22 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Number not in attendance on account of some physi- 
cal or mental defect I3>5I9 

Number not in attendance for want of room . . . 8,826 

Number absent unexcused 3>M5 

Of the above number reported in attendance upon 
the public schools, 131,947 were obliged to go a dis- 
tance of more than theee kilometres, or one and seven- 
eighths miles. 



MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2$ 



CHAPTER II 

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 

Fewer books for study are used by pupils of the 

elementary schools of Germany than with us, they 

beino:, for the most part, outlines, and con- 

^ ^ Text-books. 

taining only the most essential facts. 
Much of what is found in our text-books is there 
supplied by the teacher. In some of the elementary 
schools, only one book is used for geography, history, 
and natural science. One book of this character I 
found divided as follows: for geography, 91 pages; 
history, 126 pages; natural history, loi pages; physics 
and chemistry, yS pages. The book was designed to be 
used during the last five years of the course. 

The conciseness of the text-books and the fewness of 
them may be comprehended from the fact that most, if 
not all, pupils carry their books and all their school 
belongings to and from school every day. These are 
generally placed in bags or knapsacks strapped to the 
backs of the children. 

In the selection of books there seems to be a some- 
what different policy in the various sections. In Bavaria 
the selection depends upon the local inspection board, 



24 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

and in Saxony upon the Minisermm, or highest school 
board. In Prussia the selection of books for the ele- 
mentary schools is determined by the concurrent vote 
of the local and district boards ; the minister of instruc- 
tion reserves the right of selection, except in important 
reading-books, and in books for religious instruction, 
which must have the indorsement of certain church 
authorities. For the introduction of any new text-book 
in a high school, permission is granted by the pro- 
vincial school board, after a recommendation of the 
book by the principal and his associate teachers. The 
recommendation must be accompanied by a statement 
of reasons. New introductions of books must be made 
at the beginning of the school year.^ 

Pupils are expected to furnish their own text-books 
if able to do so. If not, the government provides them. 

If the comparatively small number of text-books for 
pupils is noticeable to the American visitor of German 
Reference schools, the multiplicity of reference books 
Books. £^^ teachers is no less so. Many schools are 

well supplied with books for the use of teachers, upon 
methods of teaching the various subjects, as well as 
upon the subject matter to be taught. Where the 
schools themselves do not furnish such books, there is 
within easy reach of teachers a reference library, the 
books of which are supplied at little or no cost to 
the taker. 

» Sander's Lexikon der Pddagokik ; Article : Lehrbiicher. 



^ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2$ 

As a consequence of the liberality of the general 

government, and of the professional zeal of teachers, 

all schools of Germany are well supplied 

^ Apparatus. 

with suitable apparatus for teaching. In 
most school-buildings there is a room given up wholly 
to the storing of apparatus, which consists of natural 
objects, charts, pictures, and mechanical contrivances, 
some of them bought outright, and some made by the 
teachers and pupils of the school. 

The government furnishes a special appropriation for 
apparatus when a school is established, and a stated 
sum yearly for the same purpose afterwards. In some 
country schools, in addition to what is furnished by 
the government, the communities where the schools 
are located and local societies furnish what is needed. 

In the elementary schools of Prussia the following 
appliances are, by law, required to be provided : — 

A copy of every text-book used in school ; a globe ; 
a wall map of the home province ; a wall map of Ger- 
many ; a wall map of Palestine ; charts for instruction 
in natural history and philosophy ; large alphabets of 
wood or of pasteboard ; a violin ; a rule and a pair 
of compasses ; a numeral frame ; bodies for teaching 
geometry ; two blackboards ; for Protestant schools, a 
Bible and a copy of the song-book used in the district. 

That the provision made by local boards and com- 
munities far exceeds the statute requirements, is evi- 
dent to all who have visited the apparatus-rooms con- 



26 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

nected with the various schools. Hundreds of objects 
and charts are stored there ready for use in teach- 
ing the various subjects. In one elementary school of 
Prussia I counted among the apparatus for teaching 
physics and chemistry alone seventy-seven different 
articles. 

To prevent a too frequent change of teachers, there 

is the custom in some graded schools of having the 

teachers move along from class to class 

Promotion of 

Teachers with their pupils. The same end is reached, 

with Classes. ... , ^ . , 

to some extent, by havmg teachers of special 
subjects take the same class for two or more years in 
succession. 

To Americans the salaries paid to teachers of Ger- 
many seem ridiculously small. The highest salaries, 
Salaries of I think, are paid in Berlin, where the princi- 
eac ers. ^^j^ ^^ ^^^ Gymnasieii receive about ^1,650^ 

a year, with free rent of dwelling. Other teachers of 
high schools in Berlin receive on the average ^900 a 
year. In other parts of Prussia the average salary of 
high school teachers is a little less than ^800 a year. 
From ^60 to $225 a year is allowed to teachers of the 
upper classes for rent. The average yearly salary of 
all elementary school teachers of Prussia, in 1886, 
counting what is allowed some teachers for a dwelling, 
was 1^318.75. The average of salaries in the cities is 

1 All figures here in U. S. money are based upon the rate of four Marks to 
the dollar. The facts are taken from Sander's Lexikon der Pddagogik. 



^ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2/ 

higher than in the country, where from the schools 
alone teachers receive only an average of $281 a year; 
but teachers in the country frequently receive extra 
compensation for their service as choir masters and 
organists, and by special gifts from societies and local 
communities. 

Salaries in Saxony are somewhat higher than in 
other parts of Germany. Principals of the Gymnasien 
and Realgymnasien receive ^1,500 and a free dwelling. 
Principals of other high schools and normal schools 
receive from ^1,200 to $1,350 and a free dwelling. 
Head teachers {Oberlehrer) and other assistants of 
high schools receive from $450 to $1,350. Teachers 
of elementary schools receive from $210 to $900, and 
principals $1,200. 

In estimating the relative value of these salaries some 
circumstances should be taken into account. In the 
first place, the cost of living is much less in Germany 
than in America. Again, in case of disability, teachers 
receive a pension from the government, and their 
families receive assistance after their death. Teachers 
are excused from paying taxes, and they have but ten 
weeks' military service, instead of a service of one year 
or three years, as is required of other able-bodied male 
citizens. 

One reason why the teachers are contented with 
the salaries that are paid them is, that when once 
appointed, they hold their office practically during life, 



28 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

or good behavior. Rarely is a teacher dismissed from 

service, and then only after repeated complaints by 

Tenure of ^^^ Superintendent and principal. People 

Office. h3.ve said that if teachers were given a 

life tenure, they would greatly neglect their work, 

having lost one great incentive to do well. But I can 

testify, from wide observation, that such is not the case 

in Germany. I remember only two teachers who 

seemed to deserve suspension from duty, and one of 

them was quite aged. 

Various percentages of the salaries of teachers are 

allowed as pensions upon the retirement or death of 

teachers, these depending upon the time and 
Pensions. 

place of service. The pension of teachers 

in Prussia after ten years' service amounts to one- 
fourth of the salary of the last year of service, and is 
gradually raised, until, after forty years of service, the 
pension amounts to three-fourths of the last year's 
salary. 

In other parts of Germany the minimum time of 
service before pensions are granted is much less. In 
some of the smaller states pensions may be granted 
immediately after permanent appointment : in Bavaria 
after four years, and in Baden after five years. The 
amount of pension in places other than Prussia ranges 
from thirty-three and one-third per cent to one hun- 
dred per cent of the last year's salary. 

The wife and children of a deceased teacher receive 



^ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2g 

a certain percentage of the teacher's pension, ranging 
from ^40 to ^400 a year. 

In some states the teachers are obliged annually to 
subscribe to the pension fund a certain percentage of 
their salaries. Prussia, in 1888, and Saxony, in 1890, 
released the teachers from this obligation. The pay- 
ment of pensions in Prussia is assumed by the state 
and separate municipalities. The state paid in 1886 
about one-half of the entire amount of pensions paid. 

As a means of keeping up a high professional stand- 
ard among teachers, and of exercising a strong in- 
fluence upon public opinion and legislation Teachers' 
in relation to education, there are main- -Associations. 
tained throughout the empire a great number of associ- 
ations of teachers. These exist in great variety, 
representing all kinds and grades of teachers, from 
the little organized circle of village teachers to the 
National Union, now numbering nearly 40,000 mem- 
bers. It is estimated that there are now upwards of 
60,000 active paying members of the various associ- 
ations. 

From observation, and from an examination of a 
recent Year Book of German associations, — a book 
of two hundred pages, containing subjects of discussion 
and objects and names of organizations, — I judge that 
the advantages of associations in Germany over our 
own lie chiefly (i) in a better organization, whereby the 
work of small branch associations is made effective, and 



30 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

more definite conclusions are reached ; (2) in concen- 
trating the discussions upon points of vital interest. 

In many of the associations there are schemes for 
assisting members in case of sickness, and for pension- 
ing families of deceased members. 

In addition to regular duties of the school, the 
teacher, especially in the country, is frequently em- 
ployed as chorister and organist for the 
Outside ^ -^ ^ 

Duties of church, and, in many places, also as sexton, 
Teaoher. 

These duties bring him mto close relation 

with the people, and the compensation therefor serves 
to eke out the small salary he receives as teacher. At 
the same time, the practice is attended with certain 
dangers from clerical or church influence, to which the 
attention of reformers is just now being directed. 

Other duties, notably those of teacher of a continu- 
ation school (evenings and Sundays), fill the spare time 
of these much overworked officials. It should be said 
that in Prussia permission to engage in outside duties 
must be had from the government. 

Although the number of pupils to a teacher is limited 
by law in most parts of Germany, yet the complaint 
Overcrowded is constant and universal that the schools, 
** °° *■ especially the elementary schools, are over- 
crowded. That there is good ground for complaint, in 
Prussia at least, is shown from the fact that in fifty-one 
places situated in nine government districts, the aver- 
age number of pupils to a teacher in 1886 was over 



MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 3 I 

one hundred — in some cases being as high as one 
hundred and twenty.^ 

Overcrowded classes are not so general in the high 
schools as in the elementary schools, and yet in the 
lower classes of these schools, although the number of 
pupils is limited by law to thirty and forty, there are 
sometimes found as many as fifty or sixty pupils. 

In some parts of Germany the time given to home 
study for pupils of the elementary schools is limited 
by law or decree as follows : For pupils of 

Home Study. 

the lower grades, one hour ; of the middle 

grades, one hour and one half ; of the upper grades, two 

hours. 

No limit, so far as I could learn, was made anywhere 
to the amount of time devoted to study outside of 
school hours by pupils of the high schools. The pres- 
ent emperor, in a speech before a recent conference 
for school reform, declared that the time given for 
home study by pupils of class prima of the Gymnasium 
was from five and one-half to seven hours a day. This 
is probably an extravagant statement. It is safe to say, 
however, that pupils of all grades in Germany study 
more out of school than do pupils of the same grade 
and age in this country, — a conclusion which I reached 
after much inquiry of parents, teachers, and children. 
This disparity may be due in part to the fact that no 
time is allowed for study in school, every portion of the 
school day being given to recitations. 

1 Preus. Stat. p. 55. 



32 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

It should be borne in mind that much of what our 
children get from books by '' study " is acquired directly 
from teachers in Germany, and therefore that the 
nature of home study must be essentially different in 
the two countries. I noticed in several instances that 
the work required to be done at home was of a kind 
that did not permit harmful assistance : such as copy- 
ing corrected language exercises, memorizing dates and 
pieces for recitation, and solving and writing out prob- 
lems that do not require much reasoning. 

While whipping in many places is practised to a 
limited extent, and each case is reported to the authori- 
Schooi ties, there are some forms of corporal punish- 

iscip ine. j^gj^^ which I think are not reported, and, so 
far as I could judge, are not much limited in their 
application. I refer to ear-cuffing, hair-pulling, shak- 
ing, etc. The use of sarcasm and the calling of names 
by the teacher are quite general means of correction 
for the most trivial mistakes in recitation. Failure 
to answer a question, a careless slip of the tongue, 
a mispronounced or misspelt word, often brings down 
upon the offending pupil such anathemas as to make 
the visitor wonder what would happen if something 
really worthy of censure should occur. One or more 
teachers are delegated to oversee the children during 
recesses, of which there are several in the day. Some- 
times the entire recess of five or ten minutes is occu- 
pied in marching up and down the school playground. 



MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 33 

Rigid home training, and the military spirit which 
prevails throughout the country, probably account for 
the greater severity of discipline in the schools of 
Germany as compared with that in our own schools. 

Pupils of all ages seem to be subject to the control 
of school authorities to a far greater extent than with 
us. Pupils of high schools in Prussia are Outside 
forbidden to absent themselves from the city ^^"^ ^°°* 
or town over night, to attend theatres and balls, or 
receive private lessons, without permission from the 
teacher or director. They are forbidden to frequent 
saloons and taverns, and may not attend certain public 
performances, except in company with their parents or 
guardians. Alcoholic liquor or beer cannot be sold to 
children of school age. 

In many parts of Germany no one, not even a parent 

or friend of the pupils, is allowed to visit the school at 

any time, without permission from the con- 

J ' ^ ^ Visitors. 

stituted authorities. To visit the high schools 
one must get written permission from the minister of 
instruction or provincial school board. To visit the 
elementary schools permission from the city or district 
superintendent must be obtained. In Southern Ger- 
many there does not seem to be so great strictness in 
requiring letters of permission as in the northern part. 
In Saxony and other parts of Southern Germany, the 
principal of each school seems to be authorized to 
permit persons to visit the rooms, although even then 



34 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

an official letter of permission and introduction goes 
a great way toward securing favors which would not 
otherwise be given. 

Special provision is made in some states for teachers 
of normal schools to visit schools other than their 
own. 



NORMAL SCHOOLS 35 



CHAPTER III 

NORMAL SCHOOLS 

There are in the entire empire about two hundred 
normal schools, more than half of which are in Prussia. 
Most of these institutions are supported by the state, 
some by cities, and some by private individuals. The 
schools for males and the schools for females are 
separate ; a division more or less marked is made also 
on the basis of religion. For example, in Prussia 
seventy-two schools are reported as Evangelical, thirty- 
seven Catholic, and five as placing religious beliefs on 
an equality {paritdt). 

As a rule, these schools are not large, numbering in 
most cases not more than one hundred pupils. The 
classes are correspondingly small, each class 
having rarely more than forty pupils. In 
1888, there were but five of the one hundred and fifteen 
normal schools of Prussia which had upwards of one 
hundred pupils, and but one which had less than fifty 
pupils. 

The number of teachers required for each normal 
school in Prussia is seven : one principal, one head 
assistant, and five other assistant teachers. In the 



36 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

year 1888 the average number of pupils to a teacher 
Number of was about twelve. The number of teachers 
eac ers. ^^ove cited does not include the critic 
teachers, of whom there are two or more in every 
practice school. 

The students who enter the public normal schools 
are generally from the middle classes : merchants, teach- 

ciassof ^^^' ^^^' ^^ ^^^ 95^ students who attended 

Patrons. ^^^ Berlin Normal School for males between 
the years 1830 and 1850, 420 were sons of merchants; 
245 of teachers; 114 of lower officials ; 57 of farmers ; 
38 of workmen ; 27 of military men ; 16 of clergymen ; 
II of men who live upon their rents ; 8 of physicians 
and lawyers ; and 22 of all other occupations. 

The qualifications for admission to the normal schools 

are considerably in advance of the qualifications required 

for similar schools in America. In another 

Qualifi- 
cations for respect the German normal schools have an 

advantage over ours, and that is in respect to 
the preparation which the pupils receive in the lower 
schools. The instruction there in all branches is uni- 
formly good, and but little time is required to train 
pupils into good habits of study. In the sciences the 
observation work of the lower schools is particularly 
helpful to normal-school students, both for the training 
it gives them, and for the facts which are acquired as a 
basis for scientific work. 

The examination for admission to the normal school 



NORMAL SCHOOLS 37 

is oral and written, embracing all subjects required to 
be taught in the elementary schools. The written 
work includes a theme upon a given subject and brief 
tests in the various studies. The oral examination is 
conducted by members of the faculty, each teacher 
generally examining in the subject which he teaches. 
From the prescribed requirements, I quote a few of 
the principal features. 

In Prussia candidates for entrance to a normal school 
for males may not be under seventeen years of age, and 
not more than twenty-four. They must present certifi- 
cates as to their physical condition and moral character, 
and must present a satisfactory guarantee that the 
father or guardian is able to pay their living expenses 
during the course. They pledge themselves to serve 
as teachers in the kingdom at least three years, under 
penalty of forfeiting the cost of instruction and board. 
The syllabus of entrance requirements shows that no 
time of the normal-school course is expected to be 
given to teaching the subject matter of the elementary 
schools ; or, if such matter is taught, it is mainly 
for discipline, and for the purpose of enabling the 
students to know the subjects from the teacher's stand- 
point. 

In language, candidates must know the principal 
forms of poetry, and must be able to repeat from 
memory and explain poems of celebrated authors. 
They must be able to give practical applications of 



38 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



grammatical rules, and write correctly short themes on 
given subjects. 

Arithmetic, geography, elementary algebra, and the 
elements of plane geometry are_ expected to be thor- 
oughly known. 

The course of studies for the normal school proper 
extends over three years. In Saxony the course is six 
Course of years ; but the first three years are given to 
Studies. preparatory studies. These institutions are 
supposed to take students directly from the elementary 
peoples' schools. Other normal schools draw directly 
from the higher common school {/where Burgherschule)^ 
or from the higher girls' school. Some of these schools 
have a two years' preparatory course, beginning where 
the elementary course is supposed to end. 

The following tables indicate the distribution of 
studies in the two kinds of schools mentioned : — 

Royal Prussian Schools, Three- Years' Course. 

















Number of 


Recitations Weekly. 


bUBJECTS. 


First Year. 


Second 
Year. 


Third Year. 


Pedagogics 


2 


2 


3 


Religion . 














4 


4 


2 


German 














5 


5 


2 


History 














2 


2 


2 


Arithmetic 














3 


3 


I 


Geometry . 














2 


2 


- 


Physics 














4 


4 


2 


Geography 














2 


2 


I 


Drawing . 














2 


2 


I 


Writing 














2 


I 


- 


Gymnastics 














2 


2 


2 


Music, instrumental and vocal 










s 


5 


3 


Foreign language (elective) 








1 3 


3 


2 



NORMAL SCHOOLS 



39 



Six - Years* Course in Saxony, designed for Pupils who have graduated from 
the Elemeittary People'' s Schools. 



Subjects. 



Number of Recitations Weekly. 



First 
Year. 



Second Third 
Year. Year. 



Fourth 
Year. 



Fifth 

Year. 



Sixth 
Year. 



Religion 

German . . . . . 

Latin 

Geography . . • . 
History . . . . . 
Nature studies . . . . 
Physics . . . . . 
Mathematics . . . . 
Pedagogics . . . . 
School practice . . . . 
Music, vocal and instrumental. 
Gymnastics . . . . 

Writing 

Drawing . . . . . 



Stenography and piano and organ lessons, elective. 

It will be seen from these plans that much more 
is required in some branches than our schools require, 
especially in those branches which are frequently 
taught in this country by special teachers. In music, 
for example, every student of the normal school is 
required to learn to play upon some musical instru- 
ment, generally, in men's schools, upon the violin. 
Regular instruction, with several hours of practice 
weekly throughout the course, gives the students such 
facility in playing the violin or piano as to enable 
them to teach music well when they become teachers. 

In 1890 only twenty-three of the two hundred state 
normal schools were for females. The requirements 
for admission to these schools are not unlike „ 

Normal 

the requirements for other normal schools.^ Schools for 

Females. 

In Prussia less music is required in the en- 
trance examination for female schools than is required 

1 See pp. 36,37. 



40 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



for male schools, and hand work — sewing, etc., — is an 
added subject of examination. 

The plan of study for these schools is somewhat 
different from the schools for males, as the following 
table shows: — 

Plan of Study in State Normal School for Females y Dresden, 1882 -83. 



Subjects. 



Religion 

German 

French \ Language 

English 

Geography 

History 

Natural Science 

Arithmetic and Geometry 

Pedagogics 

School practice 

Singing . . 

Harmony and Piano 

Drawing 

Writing 

Sewing, etc. . 

Gymnastics . 

Stenography 



NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. 



First 
year. 



^ 



W 



Second 
year. 



Third 
year. 



Fourth 
year. 



Fifth 
year. 



^ 



W 



Total, 



30 



30 



31 I 5 n 31 I 7 II 2? 



As a rule, fewer changes in classes occur during the 
course than in our schools, either by accessions, depart- 
ures, or non-promotions. The following tables show 
how well the numbers are sustained in three classes of 
a small normal school in Eisenach. It should be said 
that this instance of regularity is by no means an 
exceptional one. 



NORMAL SCHOOLS 



41 



School Year, 1886-87. 



Class. 


Number 

left at 

Easter. 


Number 

entered at 

Easter. 


Number 
of Pupils 
at begin- 
ning of 
School 
Year. 


Deaths 

during 

the 
School 
Year. 


Number 
left dur- 
ing the 
School 
Year. 


Number 

entered 

during the 

School 

Year. 


Number 

of Pupils 

at end of 

School 

Year. 


I. . 

H. . 

III. . 


21 
I 


I 
10 


20 

14 
II 


— 


I 


— 


19 
14 
II 


Total . 1 22 


" 1 45 


- 1 


- 


44 



School Year, 1887-88. 




Tuition is free to all students who intend to teach. 
In boarding schools the expense of living is very small 
— in many cases less than eighty dollars a j, ^gg 
year. Assistance is given by the govern- 
ment to indigent pupils, amounting in some cases to 
the entire cost of living. In some of the buildings 
which I visited there were large sleeping-rooms having 
thirty or more beds. This arrangement, with the ex- 
ceedingly simple bills of fare, brings the living expenses 
of the students down to the lowest possible amount. 

In some parts of Germany, where preparation for 
entrance to the normal schools is not easily made in 
existing institutions, there are special fitting schools 
established either by private individuals or by the gov- 



42 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

ernment. In Prussia there are thirty-two government 
Fitting- fitting schools, the course of which covers 

Schools. three years of study. Candidates for 
these schools are admitted by examination, oral and 
written, upon the studies of the elementary schools. 

Some of the normal schools have connected with 
Practice them two practice schools for observation and 
'^ °° ^* practice — one ungraded and another graded 
into four or more classes. All the graded practice 
schools in Prussia follow the course of the people's 
elementary schools with the exception of the school 
connected with the Berlin Normal School for males, 
which has a nine-years' course, embracing elementary 
and high school studies. 

In some schools the amount of observation and 
practice is much greater than that indicated in the 
above table. In Prussia students of the normal school 
observe and assist in the practice school several hours 
a week during the second year of the course. During 
the third year of the course students have not less than 
six hours and not more than ten hours a week of actual 
practice in teaching and disciplining a school. In the 
Eisenach Normal School members of the senior class 
spend eighteen and a half hours a week in the practice 
school, eight hours of which is spent in teaching. 

In all the public normal schools which I visited the 
work required of the pupil teachers was very syste- 
matic and severe. The student has first to submit to 



NORMAL SCHOOLS 43 

a critic teacher for correction an abstract of the reci- 
tation which he is about to conduct. The recitation is 
then subject to the criticism of a critic teacher who 
has, besides his regular work in the practice school, a 
few special subjects to teach in the normal school. 
The programmes of the senior class are so arranged 
as to permit members to observe and practise during 
the practice school hours. Thus regular recitations for 
the senior and junior classes are likely to begin as early 
as seven a.m., and to continue as late as seven p.m. 

Sometimes the critic teacher and the entire senior 
class observe the work of a pupil teacher in teaching, 
and for a longer or shorter time after the lesson there 
is a discussion of the merits of the method and manage- 
ment. These discussions are free, and the criticisms, 
as a rule, are very severe. In the seminary connected 
with the University of Jena, one evening a week is 
devoted to these discussions which are always of a very 
searching nature, neither professor nor students show- 
ing any mercy in their criticisms of mistakes. 



44 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER IV 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



The high schools are designated by different names, 
depending in part upon the length of the course and in 
part upon the studies pursued. The names and general 
characteristics of these schools are as follows : — 

I. Gymnasien, or schools in which special emphasis 
is placed upon the study of ancient languages, corre- 
sponding to the Latin schools of some of our larger 
cities. The following programme ^ indicates the amount 
of time spent upon the various subjects in a royal 
Prussian gymnasium following three years in a primary 
preparatory school. 



SUBJECTS. 



Religion 

German 

Latin 

Greek 

French 

History and geography 

Mathematics 

Natural history . 

Physics 

Writing . . » 

Drawing . 

Gymnastics 

Singing . 



Total 



NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. 



^> 



32 






34 



^-> 



34 



34 



si> 



34 



•£> 



34 






34 






34 



■^> 



34 



19 
21 

77 
40 
21 
28 
34 



Hebrew and, in some schools, English are elective both for four years of the 
course. 

1 Adopted in 1882. 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



45 



The Gymnasien have generally six classes, covering a 
course of nine years, each of the three highest classes 
being separated into two divisions. The course is 
begun when the pupil is about nine years of age. 

In Saxony the requirements are greater in some sub- 
jects than are indicated in the above table, as is shown 
by the following : — 

Programme of Studies '^ for Gymnasium in the Kingdom of Saxony. 
{Figures zw parentheses denote elective work.) 





NUMBER OF 


RECITATIONS WEEKLY. 




>^ 


c 


u 




u 


)^ 


^ :^ 


c 






SUBJECTS. 


01 


-a t 


n 


A 


rt 


<« 


•5 « 


^ s 


ci 










IS 


1^ 
O <U 


^^ 




5!> 
> 




1^ 


5 
o 




In 

3 


3 


H 
3 


2 


2 


2 


t/! 
2 


2 


2 


H 


Religion 


21 


German 


3 


3 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 




Latin 


lO 


lO 


ID 


ID 


TO 


ID 


ID 


P 


p 




Greek 


- 


- 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 


6 




French 


- 


2(^) 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 




Hebrew 


- 




- 


- 


- 


- 


f2) 


(2) 


(2) 




Enc;lish 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


(2) 


(2) 


(2) 


(2) 




Mathematics _ ) 
Numbers — Arithmetic) 






















3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 




Natural History and Physics . 


2 


2 


- 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 




History ) . 
Geography j • • • • 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 




Philosophy 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


(I) 


(I) 




Penmanship 


2 


2 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


- 




Drawing ...... 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 




Singing 


2 


2 


2 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 




Gymnastics 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 




Stenography 


— 


~ 


~ 


(I) 


(I) 


(l) 


' 


' 


" 





1 Adopted, 1870. 

Graduation from this course entitles the student to 
enter the university, and those who pass the examin- 
ation for the seventh year class {pbersecundd) are 
entitled to enter the voluntary one-year service in the 
army. 

2. Realschtilen, or schools in which mathematics, 



46 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



science, geography, and history are chiefly taught. 
These schools by the name here given are compara- 
tively few. Only about one-eighth of all the high 
schools of Germany are known as Realschiilen. In 
some places, as in Bavaria and Saxony, they are in all 
respects like the Higher Burger schools of other parts 
of Germany. 

In Prussia the Realschiilen^ called second grade Real- 
schiilen^ are the same as the Oberrealschulen without the 
last year of the course. A graduate of these schools is 
entitled to the one-year voluntary service in the army. 

3. Realgyntfiasien, — These are schools having a 
nine-years' course in which mathematics, natural 
science, modern languages, and Latin have a promi- 
nent place. The following programme of a Prussian 
Realgymnasiuvi shows the kind and amount of work 
done. As in the course of the gymnasium above 
given, this course is supposed to follow a three-year 
preparatory course. 














Number of Lessons Weekly, 


Subjects. 


1^ 


Ti rt 


re 


^ re 


re 


1- 


■Zc 


j:: re 




'rt 




(U 


C 1> 


t3 <u 


Y (U 


,- "" 


r- 1J 


c ?; 


%n dj 


.C <u 


^ 










3> 


fa 


2> 
fa 




0) OJ 


fa 




Religion 


3 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


iQ 


German 








3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


27 


Latin 








8 


7 


7 


6 


6 


s 


5 


5 


S 


S4 


trench 








- 


5 


.S 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


34 


English 








- 


- 


- 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 


20 


History and geography 








3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


3 


3 


3 


3 


30 


Natural history 








2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 








12 


Physics .... 








- 


- 


- 


- 


- 


3 


3 


3 


3 


12 


Chemistry 








- 


— 


— 


— 


_ 




2 


2 


2 


6 


Mathematics 








5 


4 


S 


5 


5 


s 


<; 


S 


S 


44 


Writing 








3 


2 


- 














S 


Drawing 








2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


18 


Total 






. 1 29 


30 


30 


32 


32 


32 


32 


32 


I32 


281 



HIGH SCHOOLS 47 

The course of the same grade schools in other parts 
of Germany does not differ materially from the above 
plan. In a Leipsic city Realgymnashim a little more 
time is given to German in the lower classes than in 
the Prussian schools, and no time is given to penman- 
ship. Five years are given to physics instead of four, 
but the whole number of hours is the same as given 
above. The entire number of Realgymnasien in Ger- 
many in 1888 was 135. 

4. Progymnasien. — These schools are Gymnasien 
with a shortened course, generally seven years. They 
are not numerous, nor have they reason for existence 
independent of the examination for the one-year volun- 
tary service in the army. By passing this examination 
at the end of Obersectmda class of the Gymnasium, 
corresponding to the highest class of the Progymna- 
sium, a boy is permitted to serve in the army one year 
instead of three, which is otherwise required of all able- 
bodied young men. 

Forty of the fifty-four Progymnasien in Germany in 
1888 were in Prussia. 

5. Realprogymnasien. — These are schools of a seven- 
years' course corresponding to the Realgymnasien with- 
out c\2iss prima. Graduates of these schools may enter 
the second class of a Realgymnasium, and pupils who 
have passed an examination for the first class may 
enter the one-year voluntary service in the army. 
More than one-eighth of all the high schools of Ger- 



48 Schools of Germany 



i 



many are of this kind, and are situated mainly in 
Prussia. Until 1882 these schools were called in 
Prussia Higher Burger schools. 

6. Oberrealschiilen. — These are schools covering nine 
years, and having a course of study differing from the 
Realgymnasicft in having no Latin and more French, 
English, physics, chemistry, mathematics, and drawing. 
There were only seventeen of these schools in Germany 
in 1888. 

7. H'dhere Biirgerschiilen. — This class of schools has 
a course of studies extending over a period of six years. 
In the Prussian high burger schools French is taught 
the entire six years, English three, and arithmetic or 
algebra throughout the course. Graduation from these 
schools entitles the young man to the one-year service 
in the army, also entrance to the third class of the 
Oberrealschiilen. 

It will be understood, of course, that preceding the 
courses of all of these high schools there is supposed to 
be a preparatory course of three years, and that all high 
schools named thus far are for boys only. 

8. H'dhere Mddchen Schtden. — These schools have a 
ten-years' course, including the preparatory course. 
They are frequently joined with the girls' normal 
schools as preparatory schools. They differ from the 
Gymriasien and Realgymnasien in not including in the 
course either Latin or Greek, and in providing little 
opportunity for the study of the sciences. On the 



I 



HIGH SCHOOLS 



49 



other hand, they give much time to the study of the 
French and English languages and of literature. 

The following programme presents the number of 
hours given weekly to each branch of study in Prussian 
schools of this kind: — 



SUBJECTS. 



Religion 

German 

French 

English 

Arithmetic. 

History 

Geography 

Natural History 

Singing 

Writing 

Drawing 

Gymnastics 

Sewing 



Total 



NUMBER OF RECITATIONS WEEKLY. 






e> 



i8 20 24 28 30 30 30 30 30 240 






Xi> 






20 
54 
27 
12 
29 



4 
14 



18 



In the public high schools for girls there are, accord- 
ing to the last reports, more male teachers than female 
teachers. In Prussia there were, in 1886, 1,271 male 
teachers and 926 female teachers in these schools. 

By middle schools {Mittelschulen) is meant in Austria 
and Southern Germany Gymnasien, Realgymnasien, and 
OberrealscJmlen. In Prussia they are the kiddie 
schools which stand between the elementary s*^^oo^s. 
and high schools, or, rather, they are schools whose 
courses are modifications of the elementary course in 
the direction of high school work. The authorized 
course of studies provides for the study of French and 



50 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

a more extended study of physics and geometry than is 
allowed in the elementary schools. In some of them, 
also, English and Latin may be studied. 

A somewhat larger proportion of children take the 
high school course in Germany than in America. It is 
Number of estimated ^ that in Prussia, in 1886, from 
Pupils. 205,000 to 207,000 boys attended the high 

and middle schools, and from 150,000 to 155,000 girls 
attended the girls' higher and middle schools : or about 
seven per cent of the whole number of pupils attended 
schools in advance of the elementary schools. From 
the same report it is stated, that for every 10,000 in 
habitants 54 boys attended the high schools, not count- 
ing those who attended the middle schools or private 
higher schools. 

The relative value of the classics and science is being 
vigorously discussed in Germany, and changes in the 
Recent plans of study are being constantly made. 

Changes. ^ comparison of the programmes given 
above and those of the same schools thirty years ago 
shows some interesting changes. The Gym?tasium has 
added weekly in French, 4 hours ; in history and geog- 
raphy, 3 ; in mathematics, 2 ; in natural history, 2 ; in 
physics, 2. It has dropped i hour a week in religion 
and German, 9 hours in Latin, and 2 hours in Greek. 
The Realgymnasiiim has added 10 hours a week in 
Latin, and dropped i hour a week in religion, 2 hours 

1 Preus. Stat. p. loi. 



^ HIGH SCHOOLS 5 1 

in German, drawing, and writing, 3 hours in mathe- 
matics, and 4 hours in science. With such require- 
ments, it is no wonder that the boys of the high 
schools of Germany know more of foreign languages 
than many of our college graduates. Although there 
is a change going on in respect to the teaching of the 
classics, and far less is required than formerly, yet 
the humanistic spirit of Erasmus and Trotzendorf is 
still rife in many schools, as shown by the wonderful 
facility with which the boys of the upper classes 
discuss the literature of Greece and Rome in the 
language of the authors themselves. 

The chief end of instruction in the gymnasia is 
preparation for the university ; and in this preparation 
the study of Latin and Greek is the central ^atin and 
point of attention. An estimate of what is ^'^^^• 
attempted in Latin may be had from the following 
requirements of the gymnasial course in Saxony : ^ 

Sexta (fourth year in school). — Regular inflections 
to deponent verbs ; translation from Latin into Ger- 
man ; syntax so far as it relates to an understanding 
of the simple sentence ; memorizing of vocabulary and 
sentence. 

Qicinta. — Review of regular inflections; irregular 
inflections ; some principal rules of syntax ; translation 
of Latin into German and German into Latin, according 
to a practice book ; written and extemporary work 
weekly ; memorizing of vocabulary and sentences. 

Qiiarta. — Reading of Cornelius Nepos or alternately 
with reading-book ; review of syntax; translation from 

1 Gotz's Gesetz, p. 72. 



52 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



^ 



German into Latin ; written and extemporary work 
weekly ; memorizing of verses from the reading. 

Untertertia. — Reading of CcEsar de bello gallico (at 
least three books), and a poetical piece ; review of syntax 
taught in Qiiarta ; cases and pronouns ; rules of prosody 
and beginning of metre; written and extemporary work 
weekly, ^^laterial for memorizing is selected from the 
reading. 

Obcrtertia. — Reading of Ccesar de bello gallico alter- 
nately with bellum civile ; in the second half year also 
the easier orations of Cicero, preferably the ijivectivce 
in Catilinam, Ovid's Matamorphoses ; tenses and modes 
after a review of cases ; practice in prosody ; extem- 
porary written exercises, if possible in close connection 
with the reading ; material for memorizing from Ovid 
and Cicero. 

Untei'secunda. — Reading of Cicero's orations, prefer- 
ably de imperio PoDipeii, pro Roscio, pro ArcJiia, and 
Cato 7najor ; reading of Ovid, and in the second half 
year Vii'gil ; review and extension of syntax ; written 
and extemporary work ; metrical practice ; memorizing 
from the reading. 

Obersecunda. — Readinsr from the works of Sallust 
and Livy ; Cicero's orations, pro Sulla and the second 
PJiilippica, Virgil's ^-Eutid ; written and extemporary 
work ; three short compositions each half year ; ma- 
terial for memorizins: from the readinsr. 

Untoprima. — Reading of Cicero's philosophical 
works, TusculaucB dispiitationes and de offieiis, also of 
the orations : pro Milone, pro Sestio,pro Miirenay Verrina^ 
iv. and v. ; of the poets, Horatii Carniiua, also a selection 
from other Roman lyrics, and for variety an appropriate 
selection from Terrence ; four compositions each half 
year ; written, extemporary, and conversation practice ; 
material for memorizing from the reading, especially 
from Horace. 

Oberprima. — Reading of Cicero's rhetorical works, 
Bmttis, Orator^ de Oratore ; selection of letters ; Tacitus ; 



^ HIGH SCHOOLS 53 

reading of the poets, Horatii Carniina^ SatircE, and 
EspistolcB, also a selection from Plautus ; four composi- 
tions each half year ; written and extemporary work. 

In regard to the methods of teaching Latin and 
Greek, the best that can be said is that all teachers of 
every grade seem to have a common purpose and an 
intelligent idea of reaching it. In none of the schools 
which I visited was there any attempt to make the work 
of the beginners easy or to delay necessary drill in 
grammar. In Latin the boy begins at the beginning 
of the gymnasium course the study of grammatical 
forms, and continues it with great thoroughness for 
three or four years. At first he uses a small book con- 
sisting of declensions, conjugations, and rules. Later 
he is given an exhaustive treatise upon grammar, which 
he uses throughout the course. 

In the lowest grade I saw much interesting work in 
translating, in which the teacher's aim was evidently to 
teach the pupils how to study. In the abundant time 
for recitation which pupils of the lower grades have 
there is opportunity for this work which our teachers 
do not have. For example, the pupil is asked first to 
tell how many propositions there are in the sentence 
and why ; to state what the predicate is ; to give the 
principal parts of the verb, and conjugate it. He is 
then, by questions, led to find the subject, and to give 
the dependencies, first of the predicate and afterwards 
of the subject. As each new word or phrase is named 



54 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

other forms are called for, the teacher giving the Ger- 
man expression and the pupils giving the Latin. In all 
of this work the questions are asked rapidly, and the 
answers are expected to be exact and prompt. From 
the very beginning is the habit of exactness and 
promptness cultivated. I have seen children of nine 
and ten years trained in a way which most American 
parents and teachers would regard as too severe. 

Translation from German into Latin is also begun 
early, and is used as a means of fixing certain forms of 
construction. For example, after a Latin sentence has 
been translated and the necessary drill upon it has 
been given, the teacher asks the pupils to build up 
sentences progressively, using the words of the trans- 
lated sentence, thus : Let us sleep. Let us not sleep. 
Let us not sleep eight hours. Let us not sleep more 
than eight hours, etc. 

As the pupils advance, more and more attention is 
given to a finished style of translation and to the litera- 
ture. As a help to a good style, the teacher frequently 
gives his own translation as a model, and afterwards 
calls upon one and another of the pupils to give their 
rendering. Criticisms abound both from the teacher 
and from the pupils themselves. 

The reading of Latin in the advanced classes is given 
with much spirit and, judging from the character of 
some of the criticisms, with great exactness. In poetry 
expression is most carefully attended to. Every line 



HIGH SCHOOLS 55 

seems to mean something to the reader, and all mem- 
bers of the class enter into the spirit of the author 
much as a class of bright high-school pupils in America 
might enter into the rendering of "Hamlet" or "Mer- 
chant of Venice." The practice of conducting the 
recitation of the higher grades wholly in Latin still 
continues, although it is less extensively employed than 
formerly, and the practice, I am told, is being gradually 
abandoned. 

As is seen in the courses of studies, French and 
English are the only modern languages Modem Lan- 
taught in the high schools, the former being ^^*^®^* 
carried much farther than the latter. 

The course in French in the Realgymnasien of Saxony 
is briefly as follows : ^ — 

First Year. — Rules for pronunciation ; practice in reading ; forms 
through regular verbs ; learning by heart common words and easy 
pieces; short written exercises. 

Second Year. — Completion of declensions and conjugations ; read- 
ing ; memorizing short selections ; oral and written grammatical practice. 

Third Year. — Review of declensions and conjugations, especially of 
irregular verbs ; beginning of syntax ; reading ; memorizing of poetical 
and prose selections ; practice in conversation and writing. 

Fourth Year. — Continuation of syntax ; reading, according to ability, 
from an easy prose author ; practice in conversation, written exercises, 
and compositions. 

Fifth Year. — The language of the recitation from this time to be in 
French ; review and completion of the grammar ; reading of classical 
authors ; history of literature of the seventeenth and first half of the 
eighteenth century ; original compositions and speeches. 

Sixth Year. — Continuation of reading, modern authors ; review and 
completion of the history of literature ; original compositions and 
speeches. 

1 Gotz's Gestez, p. iii. 



56 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

At the close of the course, pupils are expected not 
only to be acquainted with the grammar, but also to 
translate, without the use of the lexicon, difficult prose 
and easy poetry, to understand a lecture delivered in 
French, to answer questions fluently in French, to write 
correctly French compositions, to compose letters, and 
to be acquainted with the history of French literature. 

Practice varies as to the use of the mother tongue in 
teaching French and English. In most of the recita- 
tions of the lower classes, which I heard, the explana- 
tions and directions were all given in German. In the 
upper classes more and more use is made of the lan- 
guage which is being studied. In the courses of studies 
for the Saxony high and normal schools, the regulation 
is for the two higher classes to use French only in the 
French classes, and, "as a rule," only English in 
English classes. 

There are a few native French and English teachers, 
but a large majority of the teachers of French and 
English are Germans. German boys and girls make 
difficult and rather poor work in pronouncing English ; 
but in their knowledge of fine grammatical points they 
excel many of our high-school pupils. 

The reading of classic authors, both French and 
English, is pursued to a surprising degree. Four years 
of the study of English in a Realgymnasiiim does not 
enable the student to speak with any degree of fluency, 
but it puts him in possession of a knowledge of the 



HIGH SCHOOLS 57 

literature which is highly creditable. Irving, Scott, Dick- 
ens, and Shakespeare seem to be the favorite authors. 

The results in the study of science do not seem to be 
so much better than the results obtained in our best 

high schools, as the greater amount of time 

Science, 
given to it would seem to demand. As a 

rule, the laboratories are not so complete as they are in 
our best schools, and the experiments by individual 
pupils are apparently not so common as experiments 
made by the teacher and exhibited to the pupils. 
There is, however, a more scientific treatment of the 
various subjects than is pursued in our public schools; 
owing, no doubt, to the greater length of the course. 
Much theoretical and mathematical work is done in 
physics, independent of experiments. 

The following course of study in physics and chem- 
istry in a Realgymnasium of Saxony shows the number 
and order of subjects studied in the allotted time ; viz., 
five years for physics and three years for chemistry. 

Physics. 

Fifth Year. — Two hours a week : General properties 
of matter ; equilibrium and movements of solid, liquid, 
and gaseous bodies. 

Sixth Year. — Two hours a week: Magnetism and 
electricity. 

Seventh Year. — Two hours a week : Heat and light. 

Eighth Year. — Three hours a week : Galvanism ; 
mathematical treatment of mechanics. 

Ninth Year. — Three hours a week : Continuation of 



58 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

mechanics ; waves ; acoustics ; optics ; introduction to 
spherical astronomy ; general reviews. 

Chejnistry. 

Seventh Year. — Two hours a week : Introduction to 
an understanding of chemical processes ; inspection of 
the most important elements ; chief points of stoichi- 
ometry ; detailed study of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, 
nitrogen, and their combinations with each other. 

Eighth Year. — Two hours a week : Systematic treat- 
ment of other elements with special reference to min- 
eralogy and arts ; lessons in stoichiometry. 

- Ninth Year. — Two hours a week : Rest of metals 
and their combinations, with special reference to their 
technical application. 

Each of the higher grade of high schools issues every 
year a circular known under various names, contain- 
SchooiCircu- ii"^& the course of studies, daily programme, 
"*• chronicle of events for the year, etc. One 

important feature of these circulars is an essay of seve- 
ral pages, generally written by a member of the faculty. 
The following titles indicate the character of these 
essays : " Oral practice in teaching Modern Languages 
in the Lower and Middle Classes of the Realgym- 
nasinm;'' "Goethe's Relation to History and Poli- 
tics;" ''The Swedish-Polish War of 1655-60." 



PRIVATE SCHOOLS 59 




CHAPTER V 



PRIVATE, INDUSTRIAL, AND CONTINUATION 

SCHOOLS 

PRIVATE SCHOOLS 

Private schools, or schools established and supported 
by private individuals or societies, are of various kinds, 
including the Kindergarten and other institu- Kinds of Pri- 
tions for the care of children before they ^ate Schools, 
arrive at school age, elementary schools, and higher or 
middle schools. They are under the direction of the 
state or municipal government, so far at least as quali- 
fications of teachers and courses of study are concerned. 
In Prussia and other smaller states no teacher can 
be employed in a private school, or, for that matter, in 

. private family, who has not passed certain conditions of 
examinations required by the government, aintenance. 
Nor can a private school be established until evidence 

i presented of the intention and ability of its founders 
to support a school equal in efficiency to public schools 
of the same kind. By law also no private school can 
be established where there is already sufficient accom- 
modations in the public schools. It is generally un- 
derstood, however, that this law is not strictly enforced, 



60 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

and that there are many private schools, particularly in 
cities and large towns, where there are ample accom- 
modations for all pupils in the public schools. 

The elementary private schools have materially de- 
creased in number during the past twenty years. The 
Number of following table ^ shows to what extent they 

Private 

Schools. decreased m Prussia between the years 
1 87 1 and 1886. 

CITY SCHOOLS. RURAL SCHOOLS. 

1871 1886 1871 1886 

Number of Schools . . 1,382 894 486 315 

" Classes . . 3,744 3,266 ^-ip 1^1 

" Pupils . . 93,720 68,698 13,401 8,438 

Most of the private higher or middle schools are for 
girls, and a large majority of their teachers are women. 
In Prussia, of the 68,373 children attending the private 
middle schools in 1886, 55,748 were girls ; and of the 
3,126 teachers of such schools, 2,422 were women. ^ 

Although the Kindergarten of Germany are, many of 

them, more perfectly developed than ours, they do not 

„. , .. seem to have as stronsf a hold upon the peo- 
Kandergarten. 011 

pie or to have as large a place in the educa- 
tion of children in Germany as in America. 

As in this country, there seem to be two divisions or 
schools of kindergartners, the chief difference between 
them being in the closeness of adherence to Frobel's 
purpose and plans. One of the most complete and 
satisfactory Kindergarten which I saw was the school 

1 Preus. Stat. p. 105. 2 Preus. Stat. p. 106. 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 6l 

in direct charge of a niece of Frobel — Frau Schrader. 
The institution is located in Berlin, and consists of a 
Kindergarten, classes for primary instruction, classes in 
handwork for both boys and girls, a normal school for 
kindergartners, a cooking-school, and a home for young 
women. The Kindergarten is divided into four sec- 
tions, each section doing the work of one year. In this 
school the young ladies of the normal class teach under 
the direction of experienced teachers. There is a gar- 
den connected with the school, which is brought into 
use in the proper season. 

In addition to the Kindergarten there are other insti- 
tutions for children under school age, which are in some 
places partially supported by the city or town, 
but which are generally in charge of chari- 
table associations. These institutions consist of day 
nurseries {Krippeji), where babies are taken care of 
while their mothers are at work, and of schools for 
young children ( Warteschulen) whose parents are unable 
to care for them. In some of these schools there are 
classes for instruction, but the children cannot be kept 
in them beyond a certain time. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 

Besides the higher technical schools corresponding to 

our technological schools, there are in various 

° Trade Schools. 

parts of Germany special trade schools 
(Baugewerkschulen) receiving more or less assistance 



62 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

from the state and municipality, and having a regular 
four years' course and a graduation examination. 

Carpenters', cabinet-makers', and machinists' trades 
are learned in these schools ; and lessons are given in 
the elementary and higher branches, including algebra, 
geometry, physics, drawing, and architecture. Prussia 
has ten such schools, Saxony six, and Bavaria and 
Wiirtemberg one each. 

There are other schools {Fachschiileii) in which 
technical handwork is taught, such as weaving, carv- 
ing, engraving, working in straw, basket-making, pot- 
tery-making, etc. These schools are for men and for 
boys who are not within the legal school age. 

Within a few years many manual training schools or 
shops have been founded in which boys of all ages are 
-- , „ . tauo:ht outside of school hours some form of 

Manual Tram- ^ 

ing Schools, handwork. These schools are supported by 
societies and private individuals, the pupils paying a 
nominal tuition fee only. About two-thirds of the 
pupils of these schools are from elementary schools, 
the rest from middle and private schools. Some of 
the schools are established for the purpose of aiding 
a particular industry, as broom and basket making, 
straw-working, etc. ; but most of them have the evi- 
dent purpose of training as well as utility, and find the 
purpose best reached in pasteboard work, wood-carving, 
and joiner work. A few schools give instruction in 
iron and brass working. The educational or pedagogi- 



INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 63 

cal value of the instruction given is shown by the 
increasing number of professional or regular teachers 
employed. In 1888 only nineteen per cent of the teach- 
ers were artisans against seventy-one per cent eight 
years before. 

Perhaps the best known and most complete of the 
manual training schools is the Leipsic school, which 
is in charge of the German Society for Man- leipsic 
ual Training, under the leadership of Dr. W. ^^^^°^' 
Gotze. This school has special courses for teachers 
during vacations, and also courses for boys out of 
school hours. The building is provided by the city, 
free of charge, in which work in pasteboard, wood 
(carving and joiner work), and metal is done. All 
classes of boys were in attendance at the time of my 
visit there, and I was told that the boys of the so-called 
better families were not so painstaking and patient in 
their work as the boys of the middle and lower classes. 
They were given some degree of freedom in selecting 
their subjects of instruction ; but, after having selected 
them, their course was carefully graded, and no one 
could take up the advanced work until he had done 
satisfactorily the work of the lower grade. From the 
work I saw completed I judged that utility was the 
prime object sought, although the educational training 
value of the work was not lost sight of. Dr. Gotze 
is the most active and ardent advocate of placing 
manual training among the required subjects of instruc- 
tion in the people's elementary schools. 



64 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. 

Continuation schools are schools in which the instruc- 
tion of the people's elementary schools is continued 
with reference especially to the practical needs of ap- 
prentices and other young workmen and workwomen. 

As a rule, only the study of reading, writing, and 
arithmetic is made compulsory, although, in many 
Subjects of places, provision is made for instruction in 
Instruction, natural history, elementary science, geogra- 
phy, history, physiology, geometry, book-keeping, and 
drawing. The last two subjects are taught to appren- 
tices and always with reference to their needs. 
Times of These schools are in session from two to 

Sessions. f^^j. j^Q^j-g a week, either in the evening or 
on Sundays, depending upon the location of the school 
and time of year. 

Discipline is strictly maintained in these as in other 

schools by the prompt support of boards and judges. 

^. . ,. Several instances are s^iven ^ of the punish- 

Discipline. ° ^ 

ment of disorderly pupils by fines and im- 
prisonment. Even the conduct of boys out of school 
hours seems to be under the control of the school offi- 
cials in some places. I saw posted, in one room where 
a continuation school was kept, a notice forbidding boys 
under a certain age to smoke or to enter a beer saloon. 
Throughout the greater part of Germany these 

1 Padagogischer Jahresbericht, 1889, p. 563. 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 6$ 

schools are established by law, and attendance upon 

them is compulsory for boys during a certain 

Attendance, 
period of time after the completion of the 

elementary school course. In Bavaria the time of com- 
pulsory attendance for such boys is three years, with 
permission to attend five years. 

In Saxony and some of the smaller states attendance 
upon a continuation school is made compulsory for all 
boys two years after they have graduated from the 
people's elementary school, unless they attend a trade 
school of some kind. 

In Prussia there is no uniform practice, yet it may 
be said that both trade and continuation schools are 
common in all parts of the kingdom, and that attend- 
ance upon them is made compulsory in some sections. 

Considerable attention has been given lately to the 
subject of continuation schools for girls. It is urged 
that instruction in household duties should schools for 
be made a part of the curriculum, and that 
the time for compulsory attendance should be increased. 
At present the attendance of girls upon these schools 
is obligatory only in Baden and Wiirtemberg. In 
Saxony and in two of the smaller states the attendance 
of girls may be made obligatory by the communities. 

As would be expected, these schools are much better 
organized in cities than in the country ; and schools in 
of the cities by far the most extensive sys- 
tem of evening and Sunday schools is that of Berlin. 



66 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Besides the schools whose object is to instruct in 
some particular industry, and whose support and man- 
agement falls partly upon private corporations and 
partly upon the city, there are the following schools, 
intended to supplement the work of the public day 
schools :i — 

1. Schools whose course is a continuation of a middle 
or high school course. The subjects of instruction are 
French, English, German, mercantile arithmetic, book- 
keeping, drawing, natural science, commercial law, and 
commercial geography. There are two terms of twenty 
weeks each, and the school is in session four evenings 
in the week and Sunday forenoons. A small fee is 
charged for tuition, depending upon the number of 
hours of instruction. 

2. Continuation schools for boys who have graduated 
from the public elementary schools. The subjects 
taught are German (reading, writing, and language), 
arithmetic, and drawing, and, under certain circum- 
stances, book-keeping, geometry, physics, geography, 
history, foreign languages, and singing. A small fee 
is charged for advanced studies ; for the others the 
instruction is free. There are two evening sessions of 
two hours each, and a Sunday session of four hours — 
forty weeks in the year. 

3. Continuation schools for girls in which German, 

1 These facts are taken from Grunds'dtze fiir die Verwaltung des Fortbil- 
dungs-Schulwcsens der Stadt Berlin ^ 1887. 



CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 67 

arithmetic, book-keeping, drawing, sewing, embroider- 
ing, and dress-cutting, are taught three evenings a 
week, and Sunday forenoons. A small tuition fee, from 
one-half Mark to one Mark a month, is charged the 
pupils. 

4. Free continuation schools for deaf and dumb, and 
for the blind. The common branches only are taught. 

5. Free schools for youth of both sexes, in which, in 
addition to the common branches, there is given in- 
struction in special kinds of work, as chimney-sweep- 
ing, shoemaking, and baking. 

The rooms, with heating and lighting, are provided 
by the city. All other expenses are borne by private 
associations. 

Nearly all the teachers of the above-named schools 
are principals and teachers of day schools, their salaries 
ranging from one Mark to five Marks for each hour's 
instruction. 



6S SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER VI 

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 

Besides the primary preparatory schools ( VorscJmlen) 
connected with the high schools, there are elementary 
schools which correspond to our public primary and 
grammar schools. These schools are now free in many 
parts of Germany, and where they are not free, only a 
nominal sum is charged for tuition. The course of the 
elementary people's schools ( Volksc/mlen) generally 
covers a period of eight years, and the subjects taught 
are the same as those which are taught in our elemen- 
tary schools, together with three or four additional 
subjects. 

Pupils of the same age and attainments are placed 
together for instruction whenever it is possible to do 
Graded ^o. In cities and large towns it is the 

Schools. almost universal custom to make a division 
of the pupils into eight grades, and to place pupils of 
each grade in one room. Each grade of pupils is in 
charge of a teacher who may or may not spend his 
entire time with them. He is frequently given work 
in other rooms of the building. Sometimes the work 



4 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



69 



outside of his room is all of one kind, as geography or 
arithmetic. 

The following table indicates the comparative 
amount of time given to each branch of instruction 
in graded schools : — 



Subjects. 



Number of Recitations Weekly. 



in O 

•- 1) 



W 



Religion 

Language . 

Reading 

Writing 

Arithmetic 

History or geography 

Object lessons 

Natural History . 

Geometry . 

Physics 

Drawing 

Singing _ . . . 

Gymnastics 



|.o} 



6 
6 



Total 



23 



275 



i^h 



28 



28 



30 



30 



Sewing is required in the higher grades of girls' schools. 

From this programme we learn that the elementary- 
schools of Germany are required to give instruction in 
religion (including Bible and church history and the 
catechism), geometry, elementary science, ancient 
history and gymnastics, — all of which are seldom or 
never systematically taught in corresponding schools 
of this country. The course in arithmetic does not 
embrace so many subjects as with us, and there is less 
of the geography of foreign countries and more of 
home geography than is given in our schools. In 



70 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



other respects there is not much difference in the 
subjects required to be taught in the elementary 
schools of the two countries. We should always 
remember, however, that with us the requirements con- 
cerning subjects of instruction are not always observed. 
Schools havino^ two, three, or four teachers 

Partially . 

Graded are classified so as to give a fair proportion of 

Schools. , , , 

work to each teacher. 

A school having two teachers is divided into two 
divisions, called primary and advanced. Each divis- 
ion is divided into two classes, which gives two years' 
time to each class. 

The number of hours a week given to each subject 
of instruction in Prussian schools of this kind is shown 
in the following table : — 



SUBJECTS. 



Religion 

Language .... ... 

Arithmetic ....... 

Geometry ....... 

Drawing ....... 

i?^a/^« (geography, history, natural history) 

Music 

Gymnastics 



PRIMARY 
DEPARTMENT. 



Lower Higher 
Class. Class. 



ADVANCED 
DEPARTMENT. 



Lower Higher 
Class. Class. 



The ungraded (Einklassige) schools are quite differ- 
ently classified from what they are in this country. In 
ungraded schools having but one teacher 
there are in general two plans. One plan is 
to separate the school into three divisions and allow as 



Ungraded 
Schools. 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



71 



much time as possible for each division to recite. In 
some branches all three classes recite at the same time, 
the pupils of lower classes following as best they can 
or working at a given task. 

The following table indicates the number of hours a 
week given in Prussia to each subject of study for the 
three divisions of an Einklassige school. 



SUBJECTS. 

Religion 

Language ........ 

Arithmetic ........ 

Geometry ........ 

Drawing ........ 

Realen (geography, history, and natural history) 

Music 

Gymnastics 

Total, 



Lowest 


Middle 


Class. 


Class. 


4 


5 


II 


ID 


4 


4 


_ 


I 


- 


6 


I 


2 


- 


2 


20 


30 



Advanced 
Class. 



30 



A slight departure from this classification seems to 
be made in some schools. For example, in Eisenach I 
found a school of thirty-nine pupils divided in most 
subjects into three sections ; but in arithmetic there 
were five sections, and in reading four. In this school 
the pupils who were not reciting were given sufficient 
work to do, and the recitations of twenty or twenty- 
five minutes' duration followed each other very 
promptly. 

When the number of pupils is too large to be taught 
by one teacher at a time, or when the conditions are 
not favorable for two teachers to be employed, half-day 
schools are formed, the younger pupils, or those of the 



;2 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



1 



first four years in school, attending afternoons, and 
the advanced pupils forenoons. By this arrangement 
the primary class has twelve or more recitations a 
week, and the advanced class eighteen or twenty 
recitations. 

The recitation period, as in the graded school, is 
about fifty minutes in length ; and, when the class is 
separated into sections, the pupils of each section are 
given work to do suited to their capacity, although all 
are supposed to be reciting during the period. By this 
arrangement there are about eighteen recitations a 
week with the older pupils, and twelve with the younger. 
In a school of this kind near Leipsic the following 
daily programme was followed : — 



Forenoon. 



Hour. 


MoN. 


TUES. 


Wed. 


Thurs. 


Fri. 


Sat. 


First 


Catechism. 


Bible stories 
and explana- 
tions. 


History. 


Catechism. 


Bible history 
and explana- 
tion. 


Physics 


Second 


Language 
and reading. 


German 

sentences. 

etc. 


Arithmetic 

and 
geometry. 


German and 
writing. 


German. 


Sing- 
ing. 


Third 


Arithmetic. 


Geography. 


II. Observa- 
tion lessons, 
home geogra- 
phy, and 
singing. 


Arithmetic. 


Drawing. 


II. 

Num- 
bers. 


Fourth 


Writing. 


— 


II. Reading 
and writing. 


Reading and 
writing. 


— 


II. 

Read- 
ing and 
writing. 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



73 



Afternoon. 



First 


Bible stories. 


Bible stories. 




Bible stories. 


Observation 

lessons 

and home 

geography. 


— 


Second 


Reading and 
writing. 


Reading and 
writing. 


— 


Reading and 
writing. 


Reading and 
writing. 


— 


Third 


— 


Numbers. 


— 


— 


Numbers. 


— 



From this programme it appears that the older pupils 
have eighteen recitations a week, of which six are in 
language, including reading, writing, and language or 
grammar, three in arithmetic and geometry, four in 
religion, Bible history, catechism, etc., one each in 
geography, history, drawing, singing, and physics. The 
younger pupils have fourteen recitations a week, of 
which six are in reading and writing, three in numbers, 
three in Bible stories, and two in observation lessons 
and home geography, leaving a short time during one 
day for singing. 

Such an order of recitations would hardly be toler- 
ated in the schools of many of our rural neighborhoods, 
where it is thought that a teacher is seriously neglect- 
ing his duty who fails to hear every pupil recite in 
every branch of the curriculum at least once a day. 

A detailed course of studies is carefully written out 
by the graded school principal or by the courggof 
district inspector. These courses differ only studies. 
in details of management and methods, since they 



74 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

are an elaboration of the general course prescribed 
by laws or codes. Copies of the course are placed in 
the hands of assistant teachers, who record in a book 
provided for the purpose the topics which are taught 
each day in every subject. 

In most parts of Germany tuition in the common 
elementary schools is now free, and text-books are pro- 
Tuition, vided for all pupils whose parents cannot 
afford to pay for them. Where tuition is charged it is 
only a nominal sum, — from two to five dollars a year. 

So far as I could learn, the cost of maintaining the 
elementary schools is borne by the community to the 
extent of its ability. In some of the poorer country 
districts the schools are supported entirely by the gen- 
eral government, while in others the local community 
bears the entire expense by taxation. 

In the country the boys and girls are generally 
brought together in the same school. In cities the cus- 
Sexes. tom is to separate the sexes in all of the 

upper classes, and in many of the lower classes. In 
partially graded schools, i.e., in schools having two or 
three teachers, the preference in Prussia seems to be to 
separate the sexes and to form ungraded {Einklassige) 
schools. 

From what has been said in respect to the required 
qualifications of teachers, courses of study, character 
of text-books, and length of recitations, it will be in- 
ferred that the general character of the work done in 



m 



ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 75 

the schoolroom is in many respects quite different from 
that done in our own schools. Less differ- 

General 

ence in the quality of teaching, and greater Character- 
istics, 
uniformity in results, than with us are ob- 
servable. Few teachers will be found who have not 
a definite object in all their work, and who do not strive 
to reach that object in a systematic and methodical 
way. We may not always agree with the opinions of 
these teachers ; yet we cannot doubt that they have well- 
studied opinions, both in regard to the object to be 
reached and the means to be taken to reach it. 

One characteristic of all the instruction in German 
schools is thoroughness. Not so much is attempted in 
the same length of time as with us, but it is more 
thoroughly done. The subjects in geography and 
arithmetic are fewer than we generally teach, but at the 
end of the course the pupils have thoroughly learned 
the subjects. This result is reached by systematic 
teaching and frequent reviews. Not unfrequently the 
points of a single lesson will be reviewed several times, 
and they will be brought in connection with points 
which were learned a week or a month before. 

Another characteristic of the German teacher is his 
entire mastery of the subject he teaches. As he is. 
expected to supply what many of our text-books give, 
he must be prepared with all parts of the subject in 
hand, and all subjects relating to it. In all information 
studies, like geography and history, he talks earnestly 



'J^ SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



for several minutes to his listening pupils, who are 
expected to reproduce what he says in their own lan- 
guage. They are frequently stopped and corrected for 
inaccuracies in facts and expressions. Again the sub- 
ject will be taken up by the teacher, and again repro- 
duced by the pupils, until the long recitation of fifty 
minutes or more is ended. At the beginning of the 
recitation a review of what has preceded is frequently 
taken, and at the close there may be a general summary 
of all that has been said. 

The use of objects and pictures in teaching and in 
illustrating subjects which have been presented is a 
marked feature of the elementary schools ; and in all 
schools the value of skilful questioning in leading pupils 
to the unknown from the known seems to be well under- 
stood by teachers. Pupils of the best schools practise 
in exercise books and in connection with oral recitations 
the making of diagrams and pictures illustrating facts 
which have been learned. 

Further and more detailed accounts of the actual 
work done in the elementary schools are given in the 
following chapters. 



1 



OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE J^J 



CHAPTER VII 

OBSERVATION LESSONS AND ELEMENTARY 

SCIENCE 

In no respect do the schools of Germany differ from 
our own schools more than in the extent to which obser- 
vation and elementary science lessons are pursued. In 
all of the people's schools nearly as much time is allowed 
for these lessons as for arithmetic, and quite as much as 
for geography. From two to four recitations a week, 
of nearly an hour each, through the entire course are 
given to lessons upon plants, animals, minerals, physics, 
or chemistry. The importance of this work lies quite 
as much in the logical sequence of topics, and in its 
bearing upon other subjects, as in the extent of the 
observations. 

In many schools the observation of plants, animals, 
and minerals does not begin until the third and fourth 
years ; or, if these objects are observed, it 

Plans for 

is only in a general way. For example, the Early object 

plan of study for the first three years in the 

grand duchy of Baden has the following outlines : — 

First Year. — Naming and describing objects in the 
immediate neighborhood ; writing clear simple sentences 



78 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

in connection with observation ; and showing the rela- 
tion of children to parents, to household, to school, and 
to church. 

Second Year. — Conversations upon familiar plants, 
animals, and minerals, concerning their uses, etc. ; in 
the same manner, the various articles in common use 
and their manufacture ; instruction regarding the treat- 
ment of animals and care of plants. 

TJiird Year. — Continuation of animal, plant, and min- 
eral lessons ; home geography. 

In the schools working under this and other plans of 
study for the first three years there are observed and 
talked about, in addition to the common plants, animals, 
and minerals, such familiar objects as the stovey the 
egg, the house, the schoolroom^ the bed, clotJii7ig, food, the 
garden, the field. 

The elaborated plans of natural history instruction in 
many schools seem to be based upon the idea 

Plans for Les- 
sons in Natu- of "concentric courses," each course, except 
ral History. , , , . ..,.,,. 

the last, bemg a preparation for the followmg 
one. Some teachers have adopted Luben's idea in this 
respect as follows : — 

1. Observation of individual objects. 

2. Comparison of individuals by placing together 
objects having the same attributes. 

3. Classification and geographical location. 

4. (For plants and animals) Anatomy and physi- 
ology. 

There are many teachers who take exception to the 
plan of instruction above outlined on the ground that 



OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 79 

it is too systematic and formal, leaving out of account 
the important features of internal organization and his- 
torical development according to certain laws from 
known causes. 

Still others there are who seem to emphasize the 
practical value of these lessons, and attach great impor- 
tance to the study of objects as they exist in relation 
to their natural surroundings. The following general 
scheme for the study of plants illustrates the character 
of work required under this plan : — 

1. The plant considered by itself. 

a. Description : root, stem, leaves, blossoms, fruit, 

location and time of blossomino:. 

b. Its life : first appearance, growth, length of life, 

annual or perennial. 

2. The plant as a part of nature. 

a. Relations to soil, moisture, climate ; opposing 

influences. 

b. Relations to the plants in the neighborhood : 

growing alone or with other plants ; shade ; 
parasite. 

3. The plant in relation to man. 

Use ; harmful effects of. 

In a similar manner the animals may be studied. 

Although these various plans differ in respect to the 
chief end to be attained, there is no difference of opin- 
ion as to the necessity of presenting the objects them- 
selves for study. All insist upon that, and where the 



80 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

objects cannot be conveniently presented, representa- 
tions of them in various forms are used instead. 

The following topical outlines, copied from a special I 
plan of study, indicate the kind of work which is 
Topical attempted in many schools of Southern Ger- 

Outiines. many, beginning with the fourth year. It 1 
should be understood that these topics are placed 
before the pupils one at a time, as the observations are | 
made or as the information is given : i. The four fun- 
damental forms of organs (stem, root, leaves, and hairs). 
2. Functions of these organs. 3. Growth of stems, 
outer and inner. 4. Underground stems. 5. Above- 
ground stems. 6. Length of life of stem. 7. Buds : 
growth, kinds, covering, position, unfolding, develop- 
ment, service to the plant. 8. Malformations and dis- 
eases of stems. 9. Influence upon the stem of location, 
soil, light and warmth, height, direction of wind, etc. 
ID. Growth of root. 11. Kinds of roots. 12. Effects 
of changing food. 13. Influence of location and soil. 
14. Duration of root. 15. Leaves, kinds, etc. 16. Devel- 
opment of leaves. 17. Forms of leaves. 18. Situation 
of leaves. 19. Cause of malformation and diseases of 
leaves. 20. Influence of food, light, etc., upon the leaves. 
21. Blossoms. 22. Corolla. 23. Characteristic forms 
of blossoms. 24. Essential and unessential parts of 
flower. 25. Use of flower coverings. 26. Influence 
of light, moisture, etc., upon the formation of the flower. 
27. Structure and use of stamens. 28. Structure and 



OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 8 I 

use of pistils. 29. Fertilization. 30. The fruit. 31. 
Seeds — structure and germination. 32. Dissemina- 
tion of fruits and seeds. 33. Influence of location 
upon quantity of fruit and seeds. 

In the same course of studies there are given lists 
of plants and animals to be observed each year, and - 
topics as a guide to individual observations. There is 
also given a plan for general observation, which is 
intended to prepare pupils for the study of individual 
plants and animals. Some points of this general plan 
are as follows : Plants that grow in the water, in 
swamps, in fields, in the garden, on the rocks, etc. 
Difference in the structure of plants and parts of 
plants in the same and in different localities, — upon 
the same and different kinds of soil. Change in plants 
and trees produced by cultivation. What weeds appear 
in different places and in different kinds of soil. Sud- 
den appearance and disappearance of plants. Domestic 
and wild animals. Food and sleeping-places of various 
animals. Useful and harmful animals. In what time, 
upon what plants, and under what circumstances, is 
harm done by animals. 

So far as I could discover in the general and special 
plans of study, and in the interpretation of them by 
teachers, the evident purpose of the natural objects 
history lessons is, (i) cultivation of the '^""^ *' 
observing faculties ; (2) assistance to a better under- 
standing of other studies ; (3) acquisition of facts as a 



82 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

basis for scientific study ; (4) development of a love of 
the beautiful in nature and training in ethics. 

Even in schools where no attempt is made to 
connect together the various studies, as is done in 
the Herbartian schools, observation lessons, 
other° especially those of the first three years, 

studies. ^^^ brought into close relation with other 
studies. This is particularly observable in language, 
reading, preparation for geography {Heimatktmde), and 
singing. Many of the reading-books are evidently 
arranged with special reference to a use in supple- 
menting the elementary nature-lessons, thus fixing 
important facts and making a good application of them. 
Singing-books also abound in songs intended to arouse I 
a love of nature. % 

An important end of instruction in natural history 
seems to be the observation of such features and 
BasisforSci- objects as will be useful in subsequent clas- 
entific study, gification. The plan of study for the Saxony 
elementary schools makes the following provision on 
this point : In selecting objects for study in the various 
steps, those should be chosen which are useful as repre- 
sentatives of classes, orders, and families in the three 
natural kingdoms. 

In the early object-lessons, as well as in the later 
ones in natural history, there is observable far more 
ethical training than in most schools in this country 
where similar lessons are taught. For example, in 



OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 83 

one general plan of study it is stated, after speaking of 

the obvious purposes of the lessons : *' At 

^ ^ Ethical 

the same time there should be given, in a fit- Treatment 

. , , of Subjects. 

tmg way, the representation and comprehen- 
sion of the ethical relations of the child to the objects 
observed and talked about." Especially is kindness to 
animals enjoined upon children in all lessons upon the 
domestic and harmless animals. 

Some of the plans of study and daily programmes 
designate the early object-lessons as lessons for expres- 
sion {Gedanken Ausdriick). These lessons Expression of 
are upon familiar objects, as has been said, "^^o^s^^s- 
and the main purpose of the teacher in them is to 
develop expression rather than to excite ideas. The 
following two lessons are examples of this kind of 
work : — 

Eighth Class. — First Year. 

First part of recitation not heard. 

Pupils answer in entire sentences the following 
questions : — 

What is the use of the rim } What is used instead 
of the rim sometimes } What is the use of the fore- 
piece } From what do the rim and f orepiece 

The Hat. 
protect the eyes } From what does the hat 

protect the head } (Cold, wind, snow, rain.) When 
should you keep your hat on } When should you take 
it off } (Various times given, and a pupil is asked to 



84 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

show how he would take his hat off in greeting a ladyl 
or an older person.) What kind of children take off 
their hats in greeting ? 



First Year Grade. 

Teacher begins by asking the children what they; 
saw the night before, and the following statements are 
Common brought out : "■ The moon looked round." 
Objects. a -pj-^g moon looked round like a circle." 

''The stars shone brightly." ''The stars had rays of 
light." The teacher asks the children what they 
talked about the day before, and reviews with them 
the resemblances of the dog and cat. Answers are 
given in entire sentences. Then the advance lesson is 
taken, the purpose of which is to observe and state dif- 
fere7ices in size and shape of head, shape of ears, con- 
struction of foot, hair, etc. 

Large charts are hung on the wall before the chil- 
dren. The teacher insists upon exact answers after! 
the observation has been made from the chart. The 
form of statement required in every case is in the 
form of contrast, like the following : " The dog's head 
is long like a horse's, but the cat's is short." The 
children find considerable difBculty in forming the 
sentences. After a sentence is made in the correct 
form, it is repeated by the pupils individually and in 
concert. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 85 

The following notes of lessons observed illustrate 
various noteworthy points of excellence : — 

Third Year in School. 

Subject : Parts of plant. Every pupil (there are sixty 
in the class) has an entire plant to examine. First part 
of the lesson is evidently a review of the pre- i^esson on 
vious lesson. The teacher, by rapid question- ^^^"^^* 
ing, constantly calls for facts which the pupils observe 
in the plant. The following order is observed : root, 
stem, leaf, flower; afterward the chief characteristics 
of each part are observed and expressed in entire sen- 
tences, few technical terms being used. The following 
questions serve as an example of the kind of question- 
ing upon new observations : — 

Notice the stem — is it smooth, or rough } What is 
the color .<* This is the rind, or bark ; what is next .-* 
What do you see in the middle } What is in the 
middle of the leaf ? 

Third Year in School. 

Charts of leaves before the children. First a review 
is given of what has been observed in the various 
shapes of leaves. The pupils draw the shapes 

Lesson on 
upon the blackboard and describe them in Leaves and 

Blossoms. 

sentences. The advance lesson is upon the 
blossoms. Parts of flower, color, and form are taught. 



86 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



Male and female flowers are observed and characteris- 
tics of each are given. 



Sixth Class. — Third Year. 

Practice School. Subject : "Woodpecker." Stuffed 
woodpeckers — four varieties — on the desk of the 
Lesson n teacher. Teacher asks questions, showing 
Birds. ^Q specimens to the school as a whole and 

to small groups of pupils. The following points are 
brought out, each point being discussed until the fact 
is discovered by one or more of the pupils : Habits 
of woodpecker observed by children. Similarity in 
color, — dissimilarity. Structure of foot. Claws of 
birds previously observed. Claws of woodpecker ; how 
different } Why } Food of woodpecker ; what and 
where found } How does the woodpecker know where 
in the tree the food is } Form of bill ; use. Form of 
tail ; why long } Why strong } Do they fly in flocks } 
Why not } Do they remain here in winter 1 Why } 
In what regions are they found .-* Where not found } 
Why } What kind of trees contain the food '^. Why } 
Out of what does the woodpecker build its nest } 
How is the nest built '^. Why } Review of all in good 
statements. 

The two points emphasized in this lesson are : first, 
encouragement of children to observe birds ; secondly, 
leading them to know the use of the woodpecker. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 8/ 

Fourth Class. — Fifth Year. 

Large colored charts hung before the pupils. Black- 
board used for drawing special parts. The following 
questions indicate the kind of facts learned ^ 

^ Lesson on the 

by observation of the pictures. Answers leaver, 
interspersed with information given by the teacher. 
Occasional review by pupils of points of observation 
and information. 

What is the color of the fur } What about its thick- 
ness .'* Use of the fur } Shape and situation of teeth } 
Why .-^ Kind and number of claws .-^ Use .-^ Shape of 
tail } Use } Where is its home } What is its food } 
What its habits t 

At the close of lesson all facts are reviewed and told 
in a connected story. 

Third Class. — Sixth Year. 

After observation from specimens and chart, the fol- 
lowing questions are asked and answered in complete 
sentences. 

How is the worm like the beetle } Name all points 

of resemblance. Name all points of difference. How 

many parts has the beetle } What do we call 

Lesson on 

animals that have three parts } {Korper Angleworm 

diZid. Jns6c^s 
Thiere). What other name, using a foreign 

word 1 {insecta.) Name all the insects you know. What 

two great divisions of insects .-* Examples of insects 



88 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

that have a perfect metamorpohsis ? Examples of 
insects that have an imperfect metamorphosis ? 

The blackboard is in constant use in illustrating 
points of difference and resemblance. 

Intermediate Grade. 

Subject: "The Crab and the Worm." A specimen 

in a glass case, also pictures on the wall. Pupils first 

asked to repeat the substance of previous 

Lesson on 

Crab and lesson. The points of difference between 

Worm. 

the crab and other animals stated in complete 
sentences, in respect to color, form of parts, habits, 
use, etc. Then follows a new lesson upon the worm, 
the pupils being led to observe the specimen or picture, 
and answer questions like the following : What can you 
say of its length } It consists of what } How many 
parts 1 What do you see on the outside 1 What is it 
like } What are its habits .•* What must it have to 
bore with } How is the borer constructed } How is 
it a weather prophet } When does it burrow deep 
in the ground .'' When shallow } Its food consists 
of what 1 Where found } Why } Use of the 
worm } 

An outline is placed upon the blackboard ; five points 
are made, each point expressed by a single word. 
Pupils take up each point separately and give oral 
statements in correct language. They afterwards 



OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 89 

write out a description of the worm in books provided 
for the purpose. 

There are frequently combined in the oral observation, 
lessons, matters of observation, experience, andinfoma- 
and information, as shown by the following *^°"' 
notes of a lesson heard in Leipsic. 

Upper Primary Grade, 

Map of the city and vicinity hung before the pupils. 
The boundaries of the inner or old part of the city are 
pointed out. Where is the new part of the 

^. . , ^ TheSur- 

city } What does it include } Compare in rounding 

1 • -11 t -1 • Country. 

Size the inner part with the whole city. 
Compare the inner part with the outer part. Compare 
the boundaries. Why was the old city small } What 
can you say of the walls } Why was there a wall } 
Here the teacher explains the use of the wall, etc. 

Pupils are asked to give directions of certain places 
from the schoolhouse. Map placed in different posi- 
tions and directions noted. Brooks and their branches 
pointed out. They flow in what direction 1 Into what 
do they flow } Into what does the water flow finally } 
What is the use of the water here } The mills are 
pointed out, and pupils are asked what is manufactured 
here, and what flour is made from. The experience of 
Robinson Crusoe is referred to. The pupils find diffi- 
culty in answering the question how water helps to 
make the flour, and the teacher goes to the board and 



90 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

draws a water-wheel and water flowing upon it so as to 
make it move. He describes the parts of the wheel as 
he draws, and asks questions to bring out certain ideas. 
He then shows in the same way the connection of the 
water-wheel with other wheels for the manufacture of 
the flour. Pupils repeat singly the points that have 
been taught and told, giving the origin of the different 
streets and places, e.g., Goethe, Schiller, Kloster (Clois- 
ter), Barfuss Muhle (Barefoot Mill), etc. 

The above examples give a general idea of the 
methods usually employed in giving observation lessons 
in the lower grades. Without the use of shorthand it 
is difficult to give a full report of a lesson, or to give 
such a report as will show exactly how these recitations 
are conducted. To do this, and, at the same time, to 
illustrate the kind of work done in the intermediate 
(fourth or fifth year) grades, I quote in full the follow- 
ing model lesson given in one ^ of the many books for 
teachers. Some answers which the pupils are supposed 
to make are omitted. 

The hazel-bush is made the subject of instruction 
Lesson in twice in the year, in spring and in the 
full upon autumn. The lesson in sprinsr treats of the 

theHaiel- ^ ^ ^ 

bush. hazel-bush while it is in blossom, and the fol- 

lowing facts are brought out concerning the growth of 
blossoms and stem : — 

1 Lehrbuch der Erziehung iind des Unterrichts fUr Lehrer und Lehrerinnen, 
von F. Leutz, II. Theil, pp. 266, 267. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE QI 

Whence come so many hazel-bushes in the woods ? If you wish to plant 
one in the garden, what would you do ? We put a hazel-nut in the earth. 
On account of the moisture the kernel is spread open and the little root- 
let which grows in the earth comes out, and a little stem which grows in 
the air also appears. Any one may see these little things in the hazel-nut 
kernels. We will cut a nut in two and split open the kernel. Here below, 
see. How do the young shoots of the hazel-bush grow ? Straight in the 
air like rods, as you see here on the chart. The old stems spread into 
branches. There are no leaves here, as you see. Where will they come 
from ? Why are they enveloped in so many coverings ? What do the 
little buds consist of ? Where are they on the branch ? There is where 
the leaves were last year. You can see traces of them in the three black 
points near the buds where the leaf-stalks grew. 

The most remarkable things are the little catkins. They are the blos- 
soms of the hazel-bush. Are they suddenly grown in the spring ? They 
have hung there since autumn. All through the winter have they been 
there, but they have not been of such a beautiful golden color. Whence 
does the color come ? From the warmth of the sun. The blossoms you 
see come before the leaves. What other trees or bushes bear blossoms 
first? Look carefully and see what the long catkins are made of? What 
do you see under every little scale ? I will draw on the blackboard one of 
these little scales, only larger. There are here eight little golden bodies 
separated in the middle. We have seen already similar little bodies. 
They are little dust-bags. Now you can guess where all the golden dust 
comes from if the branch is shaken. The bush is often shaken. How ? 
When the wind shakes out all the dust then the little catkins become 
empty and fall off. 

You know where the pollen must be if there is to be any fruit. Think 
of the tulip. It was, you remember, very conveniently constructed. 
Why ? The stamens and the stigmas were close together. Where are the 
stigmas here ? In the catkins, are they not? Who sees them? Look at 
all the little buds carefully. You will see red threads on the points of 
some of them. Those are the stigmas. You cannot see them in winter, 
but when the warm spring sun comes then they put out their little heads. 
They are covered with bud scales. Why ? Just like little children in a 
warm. bed. When the wind blows and clouds of dust come out of the 
little catkins, then many of the little grains will fall from the red threads, 
and then what will happen ? See. So wonderfully is the bush made that 
the wind must help it make hazel-nuts. But sometimes our little red 
threads will be caught by frosty weather, then they will freeze, or in the 
time when the powder will fall out it will rain a long time, so that there 
can be no stigmas. What will follow then ? 



92 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Now again answer the questions. What do the little catkins consist 
of? What do they carry ? When does the dust-bag empty itself ? Why? 
Where are the stigmas ? When does the fruit appear ? 

What is the difference between the construction of the blossom of the 
hazel-nut and that of the tulip ? (Others compared.) In the hazel the 
dust-threads and stigmas are together. In other flowers they are found in 
different blossoms. Here all together (not masculine and feminine, but 
dust blossoms and fruit blossoms). What plants have similar blos- 
soms? Walnut, alder, oak. What do you call the blossoms? Catkins. 
What may we name all of these trees then ? Catkin-trees or catkin- 
bearers. 

A second lesson on the hazel-bush is given for the 
purpose of observing the stem. 

In August another lesson is given to observe the 
leaves and fruit. 

Physics and, in some places, chemistry are taught in 

the last year or two years of the elementary people's 

_, . schools. In all of the courses of study the 

Physics. •' 

teachers are directed to teach only the most 
important peculiarities of the forces and phenomena of 
nature, such as gravitation, sound, light, heat, and elec- 
tricity, and to explain the most useful machines, such 
as the balance, pulley, lever, pump, etc. 

The kind and amount of instruction generally pur- 
sued in these schools are seen from the following outline 
taken from a text-book in common use.^ The part de- 
voted to physics consists of less than fifty pages, and 
is entirely devoid of illustrations. The subjects are 
supposed to be taught before the book is studied. 

1 Welt Kunde — von Hiitmann, Marten, Renner. Hannover, 1889. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS — ELEMENTARY SCIENCE 93 

I. Solid Bodies. 

I. Solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies compared. 2. Weight; 
gravity ; attraction. 3. Equilibrium, stable and un- 
stable. 4 Lever — pulley, wheel and axle. 5. In- 
clined plane ; Parallel forces. 6. Falling bodies, laws. 

7. Inertia ; friction. 8. The pendulum. 9. Mechan- 
ical work; machines. 

II. Liquid Bodies. 

I. Height of fluids in connecting tubes. 2. Floating 
bodies. 3. Specific gravity. 4. Adhesion and capil- 
lary attraction. 

III. Gases. 

I. Elasticity. 2. Pressure of the atmosphere. 3. Barom- 
eter ; pump. 

IV. Sound. 

I. Origin and transmission. 2. Echo. 

V. Heat. 

I. Creation of heat by means of friction, pressure, blows, 
etc. 2. Creation of heat by chemical action. 3. 
Heat from the sun's rays. 4. Expansion of bodies 
by heat. 5. The thermometer. 6. Effect of heat 
upon water. 7. Water and air currents. 8. Melting 
of solids. 9. Evaporation of water by heat. 
10. Steam-engine. 11. Transmission of heat; good 
and poor conductors. 12. Radiation of heat. 13. 
Specific heat. 14. Nature of heat. 

VI. Light. 

I. Luminous and non-luminous bodies. 2. Extension of 
light. 3. Sight. 4. Reflection of light. 5, Plain 
mirror. 6. Curved mirror. 7. Refraction of light. 

8. Refraction of light through convex lenses. 9. 
Colored light. 10. Spectrum. 11. The rainbow. 
12. Colors. 13. The eye and sight. 14. Optical in- 
struments. 15. The nature of light. 

VII. Magnetism. 

I. Magetic phenomena. 2. Relation of two magnets to 
each other. 3. Magnetic extension. 4. Manufacture 
of magnets. 5. Compass. 



94 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

VIII. Electricity. 

1. Electric phenomena. 2, Conductor and non-con- 
ductor of electricity. 3. Opposite electricity. 4. 
Distribution of Electricity. 5. Electrophorus and Ley- 
den jars. 6. The electrical machine. 7. Tempest. 
8. Galvanism. 9. Galvanic battery. 10. Electro-mag- 
netism. II. Telegraph. 

Two characteristics of the teaching of physics in the 

elementary schools are noticeable: ist, Directing of 

attention to simple and important facts by 

Methods of . . -n • 1 

teaching the aid of questions ; 2d, Practical charac- 
^^^^^' ter of explanations and applications of sim- 
ple laws. The use of objects — simple, home-made 
appliances — and charts and blackboard is universal. 
Perhaps the use of the last-named aid is the most 
noticeable, frequently being used as a test of the pupil's 
knowledge as well as a means of teaching. 

The following notes illustrate some methods in gen- 
eral use.^ 

Second Class. — Seventh Year in School. 

Apparatus : A dish of water, a goblet, and a ready- 
Lesson on rnade glass pump — valves, etc., visible, 
the Pump. -phe parts are first described and their action 
explained. Answers to the following questions are 
given by individual pupils by show of hands : — 

If I press this piston down, what will be the result ? 
Why does the upper valve rise .'' Now, as I draw up 
the piston, what will happen } How many think that 
the lower valve will open t What will cause it to open } 

1 For model lesson in physics, see page 201. 



OBSERVATION LESSONS ELEMENTARY SCIENCE g$ 

What else will happen ? What will cause the water to 

rise ? Where will the water go ? Let us see (teacher 

presses down and raises the piston slowly). Now, if I 

press the piston down again, what will be the result ? 

Why does the upper valve close ? Some of the pupils 

from their answers do not seem to understand, and the 

teacher uses the blackboard, reviewing step by step 

the movements and results. 

Second Class. — Apparatus : A water-tight box with 

tubes of various materials. The following questions 

are asked, and if a satisfactory answer is not , 

J Lesson on 

given, repeated in other forms : — Heat. 

These tubes are of different materials : what are 
they } If I fill the tubes with hot water, what will you 
expect to find in feeling of them } Will all feel warm } 
Why } Will all the materials be conductors of heat ? 
Which will be the best conductor of heat } (Difference 
of opinion on this point. Some think that the tube 
which feels the warmest will be the best conductor. 
Others think that the tube which feels the warmest 
first will be the best conductor. Tubes are filled with 
water, and all agree with the latter opinion.) 

Which of all these materials is the best conductor of 
heat } Which is the poorest } What kinds of cloth are 
poor conductors of heat } What kinds are better } 
What kinds should be worn in summer } What kinds 
in winter } Why } What influence has heat upon 
water } Upon the air } Uses of this knowledge t 



96 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER VIII 

READING 



i 



The reading-books of Germany throw much light 
upon the progress which has been made in teaching 

,. reading, and they also show the various 

Books. kinds of opinions now held as to the proper 

method of teaching reading to beginners. 

In the oldest reading-books — similar, perhaps, to 
the horn-books first used in this country — the letters 
of the alphabet were printed in order. At the end 
of the book were the catechism, Lord's Prayer, and 
other prayers, and finally the multiplication table. On 
account of the too great cost of these books, rude charts 
with the letters printed in large type were placed 
before the children and used instead. At the end of 
the seventeenth century illustrations were first used in 
the ABC books. These were probably suggested by 
Commenius's Orbis pictus, which first appeared in 1657. 
At about this time rhymes under the pictures began to 
be made. The rhymes seem to indicate the purpose 
of making the process of learning to read less tedious 
than it had been, and also of assisting the memory in 
learning simple facts about animals. Later, or in the 



READING 97 

beginning of the present century, appeared books in 
which the pure phonic method was presented. A few 
years later — 1817 — appeared the first book in which 
script was placed before the printed forms ; and it was 
not until 1841 that the first German book was pub- 
lished which presented the present widely prevalent 
word and sentence method.^ Books now in use gener- 
ally introduce the word before its elements, although 
there are some books used which present first the 
elements for sounding and subsequently the words. 

From the beginning, the contents of reading-books 
have been of an instructive character. The material 
of the first reading-books was chiefly of a religious 
nature — Bible history, Lord's Prayer, catechism, etc. 
At present, instructive lessons upon plants, animals, 
and minerals abound in reading-books of the lower 
grades, and books of all grades are filled with selec- 
tions intended to awaken moral, patriotic, and religious 
sentiments. Poetry also abounds in all the reading- 
books, even in those designed for beginners. In one 
First Reader I noticed that all the pieces were of an 
instructive nature. The following are the titles of a 
few of the first pieces : The School, The House and 
Yard, The Church, The Churchyard, The Market, 
Water, The Little Brook, Bread, Potatoes, Meat, The 
Garden, The House, The Cow. In all of these pieces 

1 These facts are gathered from Kehrein's Handbuch der Erziehung und 
des Unterrichts, bearbeitet von Dr. A. Keller^ p. 311-313. 



98 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

simple descriptions of familiar objects and actions are 
given, together with moral admonitions and poetical 
sentiments. About one-third of the pieces are poetry 
selected from good authors. There are but few pictures 
in this reader, and those not very good. 

In a third reader of two hundred and eighteen pages, 
I counted three hundred and eight pieces, all of which 
were designed to give instruction concerning facts of 
nature. Some were written in the form of stories and 
fables, and others in simple direct descriptions. There 
are a few crude pictures scattered through the book. 

The contents of another book extensively used in 
the highest classes of the people's schools I found 
divided into nine parts as follows : — 

1. Poems having a spiritual signification. 

2. Adages and proverbs. 

3. Fables, parables, and stories in prose. 

4. Poetical fables, fairy tales, stories, and legends. 

5. Miscellaneous pieces. 

6. Poems of nature and of the fatherland. 

7. Patriotic pieces. 

8. Concerning natural history and geography. 

9. Works of native poets in order, from the time 
of the Reformation to the present time. 

ID. Poetry selected from the most celebrated poets. 

Most of the articles were written by classic authors, 
and every one of them seems to have been selected to 



READING 99 

serve a distinct educational purpose. This standard, 
which may be said to be a general one in German read- 
ing-books, of having only models of literary excellence 
and instructive lessons, is much higher than that of 
many of our reading-books which are far from being 
classical or instructive. In some respects, however, — 
in binding, printing, and illustrations, — our reading- 
books, especially for the lower grades, are far superior 
to those of Germany. In respect to quantity of read- 
ing matter, many of our schools are far better equipped 
than any schools which I visited abroad. There few 
schools have more than one reading-book during a 
year, and in some schools one book has to last two 
years. 

The reading-frame {Lesemaschine), although not so 
much used as formerly, is seen in many schoolrooms of 
the first grade. It is so constructed that j^gading- 
words may be made by slight changes, frames. 
The frame is regarded as especially useful in schools 
where the normal word method ^ is taught, — the nor- 
mal words being allowed to remain for some time 
before the children. In some schools I saw a particu- 
larly good device for changing the letters of words. 
It was a frame with a double thickness of boards, con- 
structed in such a way as to allow the insertion of 
slides vertically and laterally. The vertical slides had 
single letters upon them ; the others, combinations of 

1 Described on page 103. 



100 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

letters. Thus the words cat^ can^ cab^ etc., could be 
easily and quickly formed. 

Occasionally I found a school of the lowest grade 
Classification divided into two or more sections, one sec- 
for Reading. ^^^^ reading while the others were employed 
with slate and pencil. Generally, however, all pupils 
of the graded schools were found reciting together. 
In ungraded schools the practice of classification for 
reading varies considerably. Some schools of this 
kind which I visited were divided into three sections — 
primary, middle, and advanced. Many ungraded 
schools are divided into two sections, the older pupils 
attending school forenoons, and the younger pupils 
afternoons. In such schools all the pupils are heard 
together in reading, following a programme which will 
be found in another place.^ 

From what I have said of the character of the first 
readers at present in use in Germany, it may be in- 
Methods of f erred that all methods except the Alphabet 
Ee^aVng to "lethod are used in teaching reading to be- 
Beginners. ginners ; and such is the fact, although the 
greater number seem to favor the word-script method. 
Much is made by all teachers of vocal drill exercises, 
the object being twofold : distinct articulation and 
facility in recognizing new words from their elements. 
Much repetition in this, as in other subjects, is notice- 
able. Frequently the teacher spends an entire recita- 

1 Page 72. 



READING 101 

tion period of fifty minutes upon a few lines, which are 
read over and over again, seemingly for the sake of 
enunciation only. 

The first recitation which I heard in Germany was of 
this character, and, as it was very different 

Illustrations 

from what I expected to hear in a German of Lessons 

heard. 

school, it made a great impression upon me. 

It was a school of forty little girls who had been in 
school but a few months. The teacher was a large 
man with a heavy voice, and his manner was Example of a 
somewhat harsh, quite in contrast to the Poor Method, 
gentleness which I had been accustomed to see in 
primary teachers at home. The first thirty minutes of 
the recitation were spent upon six lines which had been 
previously taught and read. The pupils were first 
asked to read the piece together, which they did very 
slowly, each syllable being pronounced separately and 
very emphatically. No attempt to secure natural 
expression was made. Again and again were the lines 
repeated, the teacher saying before each repetition, 
*' Once more, and very distinct." After this the pupils 
were called upon to read two or three lines apiece, 
which they read somewhat more connectedly than they 
had read in concert, but still with little or no expres- 
sion. Some of the words were then pronounced and 
talked about by the children, and little original sen- 
tences containing the words were given. The piece 
was again read over by the children in concert, this 



102 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

time with a nearer approach to good expression. The 
new lesson of a few lines was then read over very 
distinctly by the teacher, after which the pupils were 
asked to take their slates for writing. Pupils wrote 
upon the slates the review lesson in reading, which the 
teacher said would be written in blank-books the next 
day. During the reading I noticed considerable inat- 
tention on the part of pupils. The teacher stood 
during the recitation with no book in his hand, occa- 
sionally hissing when the children became too noisy, 
and speaking sharply to a child now and then for inat- 
tention. 

But not many lessons which I heard were of this 
kind. I soon found that, generally speaking, the teacher 
even of the lowest grade had an intelligent purpose in 
his work, and a philosophical plan of carrying that pur- 
pose into effect. Indeed, the teacher whose work I 
have just noted proceeded after a definite plan. The 
only doubt was as to the wisdom of his purpose and 
plan. 

The following extracts from my note-book will illus- 
trate the phonic method, which is sometimes employed 
Phonic ^^ ^^^ beginning and sometimes after several 

Method. words as wholes have been taught. Teacher 
writes in large letters the following, in German script 
(Latin letters are not generally used until the second 
year) : m, /, r,/, h,fl,fr, a, a, au, ei. As review, these 
are sounded by the children in concert, each three 



READING 103 

times. Several repetitions of this exercise are made, 
after which the same sounds are combined with others 
in making words. For example, the teacher sounds 
aii-s, aii-fy and the pupils pronounce the words which 
the sounds make, aiis, aiif. This is done by individual 
pupils with a great variety of short words. The 
teacher questions pupils to bring out certain words, 
thus : What do you do with your hands ? Pupils 
answer, Rub (reib). The teacher then points to the 
signs in their order, r-ei-b^ writing the word upon the 
board. The same is done with words which have been 
taught orally. The answers are given by the pupils all 
together and individually. The reading of sentences is 
begun when several words have been learned in this 
way. " Spelling by sound " is practised only during 
the first year. Letters are first named in the second 
year. 

In many schools I found a method of teaching read- 
ing known as the analytic-synthetic method, or as the 
normal word method. Twenty or more short formal Word 
words are carefully selected to be taught in ^6^^°<^« 
regular order ; first as wholes, afterwards in parts. 
The sounds and signs thus learned are then put 
together to make new words. The advocates of this 
method do not agree among themselves in respect to 
the words to be used, or to the priority of script, or to 
the time spent upon each word. Some teachers spend 
much time in talking about the object represented by 



104 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

the word ; others use the word simply for reading and 
writing. The extreme course is shown by teachers who 
spend three or four recitation hours upon a single word. 
Thus bed is talked about (a toy bed being shown the 
children) for two hours, concerning its use, its parts, 
uses of each part, how it is made, habits of children in 
sleeping, etc. The talking is carried on wholly by 
questions and answers, the answers being in entire 
sentences. Then the teacher draws a picture of the 
bed on the blackboard, talking as he draws. The next 
step is to sound the word slowly and carefully until 
each sound is learned. The teacher then writes the 
word on the blackboard, and talks about each part. 
The pupils copy the word several times upon the slate, 
after which they ''read" the word and designate each 
sign, carefully giving its proper sound. The last lesson 
upon the word consists in learning an appropriate piece 
of poetry and in singing. Not all the advocates of 
this method spend so much time upon any word, and 
some have the word written before it is analyzed. But 
all use the sounds and signs thus learned for the forma- 
tion of other words. 

The number of normal words thus taught before 
reading is begun varies considerably. The least num- 
ber of words in the charts and books in use is sixteen 
and the greatest is one hundred. 

The word and sentence method is used quite gener- 
ally, but nowhere abroad have I seen it carried out so 



READING 105 

well, or with as good results, as it is in our best 

schools. In many schools where this method _ , , 
•' Word and 

is employed good expression is not insisted Sentence 

^ ^ . Method. 

upon until the sentence has been read many 
times. A practice quite general with teachers of lower 
grades is to give object lessons upon the subject to be 
read in order to familiarize the pupils in the use of new 
words, and in the subject matter. An illustration of 
this method will be seen in the following notes taken 
in a first-year's class of a people's school in Leipsic. 

As I enter the room there are various fruits upon 
the teacher's table, and pictures of others hanging 
upon the wall. The teacher asks many questions like 
the following, the pupils answering in entire sen- 
tences: How is this fruit used.? What is this drop 
called.? (squeezing the grape.) Of what use is the 
grape 1 What must fruits and berries be to be of 
use } (ripe.) What kind should we not eat t I have 
told you a story about poison berries. Who can tell 
the story.? It will be observed that the teacher's 
object in this object-lesson and questioning is to lead 
the pupils to understand the thoughts expressed in the 
reading-lesson, and to give the words and expressions 
which they are subsequently to read. The children 
read with good expression and fluency. I notice that 
their articulation is good, particularly of ^'s, /s, and/'s. 
When a word is not readily given in the reading, the 
pupil is allowed to pause a moment, seeming to sound 



I06 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

the word to himself, when it is pronounced correctly. 
A second reading shows little or no hesitation in calling 
the words. Silent reading, as a preparation for oral 
reading, is not practised in any part of the recitation. 

A German teacher and author has divided reading 

into three parts, — mechanical, analytical, and aesthetic ; 

and no one of these features of reading 

Eeading : 

Mechanical, is likely to be neglected by the average 

Analytical, 

and^s- teacher in Germany. In the first year or 

two the mechanical feature is particularly 
emphasized, — more, I think, than in our best schools, 
— especially in respect to phonics and articulation. 
Afterward, the analytical and aesthetic features re- 
ceive most attention ; and in these respects, I think, 
we may learn much from our German friends. As I 
shall attempt to show later, the analysis of standard 
poetry and prose in elementary schools is carried on to 
a remarkable degree. I have heard brought out by 
pupils of the middle grades fine shades of meaning 
which we rarely find in our high schools. It may be 
that we are underrating the analytical powers of our 
children. In our zeal to have them read much we may 
forget what they read for. 

The American visitor to German schools is struck 
not only with the limited extent of the reading in them. 
Time given ^^^ ^^^^ '^^^^ ^^^ limited time of the recita- 
to Reading. ^-^^^ period given to reading. I have fre- 
quently heard but half a dozen pupils of a class of 



READING 107 

forty read during a period of fifty minutes. The rest 
of the time would be given to discussion by pupils and 
teacher of the meaning of words and expressions, 
and of subjects connected with the reading. As has 
been said, the reading-books are made up of pieces 
calculated to awaken moral, poetic, and patriotic senti- 
ments, and the efforts of teachers are wisely directed 
to the same ends. 

I shall never forget the intense interest awakened 
in one school by a teacher's description of the last 
events of the Franco-German War, sug- 

Patriotism 

gested by a piece of poetry which was being in the Eead- 

ing-class. 

read. The teacher walked up and down 
before the class, wildly gesticulating, while the boys 
listened with breathless interest. Occasional questions 
were asked which could have but one answer — mainly 
in respect to the cowardice and incapacity of the 
French soldiers. To efforts like this, repeated in 
schools of every kind and grade, is due, to great ex- 
tent, the strong spirit of patriotism which pervades 
the new empire. 

I was frequently struck with the great amount of 
supplementary work done in connection with the read- 
ing recitation. I recall the interest which 

History in 

pupils of a seventh grade, in Eisenach, Connection 

with Reading. 

manifested in a patriotic poem. The sub- 
stance was first given of that part of the poem which 
had been read the day before. The language of pupils 



I08 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

was correct and fluent. William I. and Frederick I. 
were spoken of, and the teacher drew from the pupils 
a parallelism between William I. and Barbarossa, espe- 
cially in uniting the kingdom. A story of Barba- 
rossa was then told, also a poem of the same repeated 
from memory by several pupils. History of the period 
just after the time of Barbarossa was given, and the 
knights and minstrels were talked about. This was 
called by the teacher the budding-time of the German 
national literature. Names of poets and writers of this 
period were given. The relation of minstrels to litera- 
ture was spoken of, and their effect upon the people. 
Then followed the reading, the teacher reading first, 
and the pupils following singly and together. Inter- 
spersed in the reading were questions to bring out the 
meaning of various expressions. The exercise closed 
with a comparison of the poem with another which had 
been read. 

Works of classical writers, especially of Goethe and 
study of Schiller, are very thoroughly read in the 
higher grades even of the people's schools. 

I recall a school in Leipsic of eighth-year pupils, who 
showed a somewhat remarkable knowledge of German 
literature. The pupils repeated from memory several 
of Goethe's poems, and told the story of Hermann and 
Dorothea, which they had read. They also gave a 
sketch of Goethe's life. The same pupils told who the 
leading writers of a certain period were, and, at the 



READING 109 

request of the teacher, repeated from memory a few 
lines from each of several poems. Of course this was 
an exhibition exercise, given for my benefit. But it 
was an exhibition of which boys and girls of fourteen 
years of age might well be proud. 

I have spoken of the remarkable reading and under- 
standing of poetry shown by pupils of the lower 
grades. The work of the higher grades in this regard 
is no less remarkable. 

As an example of the practice of teachers in prepar- 
ing pupils for reading, and in awakening their thought 
and interest, I copy the following notes in jjethodi^ 
full of a visit I made to a e^irls' school in awakening 

^ Thought and 

Eisenach. The pupils had been in school interest. 
four and two-thirds years, and were about eleven years 
of age. 

The piece for reading is " The Diver," by Schiller, 
and the teacher says they are about to read of a man 
who, at the request of the king, jumped into the Cha- 
rybdis after a golden cup. Then follows rapid ques- 
tioning of pupils, such as : What is the Charybdis ? 
Why dangerous .'' What other whirlpool near by ? 
Where was it supposed to be ? T9 what sea does the 
Strait of Messina belong } The map is used freely, 
and points which the pupils do not know are told them 
by the teacher. 

The teacher then speaks of the peculiar and danger- 
ous fish in those waters, and shows pictures of them 



no SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

upon a chart. Names and characteristics of all given. 
Occasionally pupils allowed to answer in concert, espe- 
cially difficult names. At this point the teacher asks 
the pupils to repeat all that has been given. 

The teacher then tells the story of the Diver, begin- 
ning with some imaginary references to the king, his 
journey from Palermo to the sea, and the purposes of 
it. Occasionally, to keep the interest of the pupils, he 
asks questions like the following : What would the 
king be likely to carry on such a journey ? What do 
you suppose prompted the king to throw the cup into 
the whirlpool ? Would the knights like to do the 
king's bidding ? Why ? Why did they hesitate .-* 
Why did the youth volunteer to go after the cup .'' As 
the story proceeds, headings are placed upon the 
blackboard, the teacher asking the pupils to decide 
what the headings should be. At certain points, as 
before, the pupils are called upon to repeat what has 
been said. 

The reading of the piece follows, the pupils criticis- 
ing each one as she reads. Animated expression and 
clear enunciation are the special features of the read- 
ing. Questions are asked by the teacher to bring out 
the thought expressed and to hold the attention. Fre- 
quently the answers are expected to be in the words of 
the poem. At other times answers in entire sentences 
in the pupils' own words are given. A few of the 
rhetorical beauties of the poem are pointed out. When 



REAPING I 1 1 

the reading is not expressive or fluent enough, the 
pupil is asked to read silently. Two or three lines are 
occasionally read in concert. There is no interruption 
of a pupil while reading. 

The same class at the next reading recitation contin- 
ued the same subject as follows : The girls asked to 
repeat the substance of the poem as far as it has been 
read. Questions asked upon advance lesson which 
require pupils to look in the book. Answers to ques- 
tions given in words of the book. Sometimes the 
answers are given in words of the pupils after silent 
reading. Oral reading of a portion follows. Much 
attention given to enunciation and expression. Some 
concert reading. Questions follow the reading, to 
bring out the pupils' understanding of certain expres- 
sions. The same course is taken with another portion ; 
viz., — 

1. Questions to induce thought. 

2. Pupils read silently. 

3. Pupils explain, telling the substance of what has 
been read silently. 

4. Oral reading, attention to expression, and enun- 
ciation. 

5. Questions upon contents of portion read, and also 
upon rhetorical features. 

One more portion treated in the same way, and then 
entire poem read. 



112 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

From thought to expression seemed to be the motto 
of the teacher in this exercise — by no means an excep- 
tional instance of a faithful application of the principle. 

Occasionally, however, I saw an attempt to reverse 
the process : as when a teacher in one of the Berlin 

schools read with pronounced expression a 
From Ex- . . 

pressionto poem, following the reading of each line 
Thought. . 

with an explanation or paraphrase of it. 

The pupils were then asked to repeat precisely what he 
had said, and when the piece had been gone through 
in that way the pupils were asked to read and explain 
the whole. 

The possibility of being deceived in an inspection of 
results simply is shown in this case. If I had not 
seen the method of the teacher, I might have judged 
the work of his pupils to be as good as that which I 
had seen in the Eisenach school. The difference, how- 
ever, was world-wide. One teacher led his pupils into 
habits of thoughtful attention to nice shades of mean- 
ing, and developed in them a love of the best literature. 
The other cultivated one faculty alone, that of the 
memory, and led his pupils, in the most effective way, 
to dislike good literature. 

From what has been said it will be seen that the 
teacher of reading from the very lowest grade has 
Cultivation clearly in mind the end of cultivating the 
of Taste. taste of the children. Not how much, but 
how well, is the constant motto of the school in read- 



READING IX^ 

ing ; and the teacher, in most cases, is careful to see 
that the good quality demanded is not confined to ex- 
pression, but that as much of the author's thought be 
understood as the pupils are capable of understanding. 
The school library found in many of the elementary 
schools admirably supplements the work of the class- 
room in enabling the teacher to guide in a large degree 
the reading of the pupils out of school hours. 

Much seems to be made of fables and fairy tales in 
the lowest grades. In schools taught according to 
principles laid down by Herbart as inter- Fables and 
preted by Ziller, the reading during the first ^^'""^ 
and second years consists wholly of fairy tales. At 
various times I heard parts of lessons in these sub- 
jects, and was much impressed by the interest which 
the children manifested, and by the ingenious methods 
pursued by some teachers to secure good results.^ 

1 For methods employed in teaching fables in the first year see p. 192. 



114 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER IX 

LANGUAGE 

Language, or " German," as given in the course of 
studies, includes reading, writing, spelling, syllabication, 
punctuation, use of capitals, word building, derivations, 
memorizing of selections, composition, and grammar. 

From what has been said of the teaching of the vari- 
ous subjects, it will be seen that in every recitation lan- 
guage is carefully taught. Language is, in 
Language in i • i i 

every Recita- all grades, evidently considered an expres- 
sion of thou-ght, and whenever there is a 
thought to be expressed, it is required to be put into 
the best possible form. Thus accuracy and fluency of 
expression are made as much ends of instruction as 
are the facts themselves. The effect of this kind of 
language teaching is especially noticeable in connection 
with the elementary object and science lessons. Here 
every fact observed is clothed in proper form, and all 
facts closely related are brought together in a series 
of connected statements. 

One feature of the recitation peculiar to the German 
schools gives an especially good opportunity for lan- 
guage training. As has been said, the German text- 



LANGUAGE II5 

books contain much less matter than ours. What our 
text-books leave out, the German teacher supplies by 
word of mouth at the time of recitation. Several 
times during a recitation the teacher makes several 
statements in the way of information, and then asks 
the pupils to reproduce in substance what has been 
said. Thus pupils get accustomed to listening closely, 
and to expressing in good language what they have 
heard. 

Again, pupils are constantly called to account for 
using ungrammatical or bungling sentences, and are 
made to repeat their language until it is satisfactory to 
the teacher. Besides being a means for excellent drill 
in spoken language, the work of the regular recitation 
furnishes a good basis for all written work. 

Aside from books upon grammar, there are few lan- 
guage text-books used either by teachers or pupils, and 

in grammar the books for elementary schools 

•' Text-books 

are limited to important points. Three sets and Blank- 

books 
of blank-books are generally found in all of 

the elementary schools — one for penmanship, one for 
dictation exercises, and one for compositions. These 
books are regularly used each week, and in all the 
schools I visited the teacher marked with red ink the 
mistakes of every exercise. The rewriting of the cor- 
rected exercises is generally given for home work. 

In examining the exercise books I was struck with 
the small number of mistakes made by the pupils and 



Il6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

noted by the teachers. This excellence of work was, 
I thought, due to the careful grading of the exercises, 
to frequency of reviews, and to the teacher's severity 
in the correction of mistakes carelessly made. 

The following syllabus ^ outlining the work to be 

done in the partially graded {Zweiklassige) schools of 

Prussia show in compact form what is 

Syllabus of ^ 

Work pre- attempted in all departments of language 
scribed. 

study. 

Correct oral and written expression of thoughts 
which enter into the life of the people and ability to 
read good literature with profit are the aims of lan- 
guage work. Special attention should be paid to 
ordinary business forms. 

PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. 

Lower Class {^\Q.-\[Q.n hours). — Object method. The 
pupils are led to talk of objects within their line of 
vision. The powers of observation are trained by 
study of objects in their vicinity. School, playground, 
garden, field, forest, and home afford a great variety in 
the material for this instruction. 

Enunciation and expression receive attention. 

In teaching reading and writing, the method of the 
normal school of the district is to be followed. The 
alphabet method is strictly forbidden. 

At the close of the first six months the pupils must 
be able to divide simple statements into words, the 
words into syllables, the syllables into their respective 

1 From the New York Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
1891. Appendix, p. 166. Mr. Parsons's Report is republished by C. W. Bardeen, 
Syracuse, N.Y. 



LANGUAGE 11/ 

sounds. They must be able to make and name the let- 
ters representing these sounds. 

At the close of the first six months the pupils learn 
the printed characters and the names of the letters of 
the alphabet. 

From the outset, to prevent mechanical reading, 
children should be taught to associate words and, 
later, statements with the objects or ideas they repre- 
sent. 

Each selection read must be thoroughly understood 
by the pupils. 

Simple proverbs, aphorisms, and short easy selec- 
tions should be learned by heart and repeatedly 
reviewed. 

In teaching writing the teacher should show upon 
the blackboard the formation of the letters. 

Orthography is encouraged through careful attention 
to enunciation, attentive reading, copying, and dictation. 

From the very beginning children in writing should 
be taught to use the proper punctuation. 

At the close of the second school year the children 
should be able to read with facility and correctness the 
selections they have taken ; to answer simple questions 
as to subject matter ; to reproduce these selections 
orally ; to copy correctly from the primer, and to write 
from memory the proverbs and sayings learned by 
heart. They should have had simple exercises in dic- 
tation. 

Higher Class (eight hours). — In this class the reader 
for middle classes is used. 

The instruction of the lower class is continued, with 
closer attention to subject matter and expression. 

Pupils are led to reproduce orally selections read. 
At first they will confine themselves quite closely to 
the words of the book. The teacher, by judicious 
questioning, will force pupils to express themselves 
more or less in their own words. 

Selections in prose and poetry are to be learned by 
heart. 



Il8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Orthography is continued as in the lower class. 
Special attention is now given to 

1. The use of capital letters. 

2. The shortening and lengthening of vowels. 

3. The Umlantmg. 

4. Hard and soft consonants at the beginning of 
words and syllables. 

$. The finding of final consonants through lengthen- 
ing words. 

6. The use of the letters t^ thy dt ; fy Vyph,pf; x, 
chs, cks, gs, ts, 2. 

In writing, the forms of the German script alphabet 
are now taught in regular order. The pupils learn the 
comparative size and position of letters, the proper dis- 
tance between letters and between words. Time writ- 
ing is then practised in concert. 

The formation of the plural of nouns is taught. 
Statements are formed with personal pronouns and 
verbs in the present tense, and afterward in the past 
and future tenses. Adjectives are studied in the same 
way. 

Word building, effect of affixing the syllables, chen, 
lein, eTy and iji to nouns ; igy lichy and iscJiy to adjectives ; 
of prefixing the syllable 2in to adjectives. 

ADVANCED DEPARTMENT. * 

Lower Class (eight hours). — The pupils read the more 
difficult selections of the middle-class reader. Correct 
expression and a thorough understanding of the subject 
matter are required. Pupils have now acquired the 
ability to reproduce selections from reader orally with 
facility, and to repeat readily that which has been 
learned by heart. 

For practice in orthography the selections learned 
by heart are written from memory and corrected by 
book. Simple rules are learned. 

Writing is continued as above. Pupils learn to com- 
pare adjectives and to form the indicative and impera- 



LANGUAGE IIQ 

tive modes of verbs. They are drilled in the declension 
of nouns with and without definite and indefinite articles. 
All the work should be practical, the pupils forming 
statements and simple sentences introducing the various 
forms of words desired. Sentences are transposed, and 
the subjunctive mode is introduced. 

Word building is continued. Words not understood 

by the pupils are best defined by practical examples ; 

i.e., the teacher forms sentences introducing such words. 

The pupils learn the parts of a simple sentence. 

The pupils reproduce in writing short stories by 

teacher, selections from the reader, etc. 

Closer attention is given to form and style of oral 
expression. Composition receives attention. An effort 
is made to teach pupils to express themselves in writ- 
m<r correctly and clearly. At first the teacher places 
ouUines upon the blackboard. Little by little these out- 
lines disappear, and the pupils are led to depend more 
and more upon themselves, after teacher has explamed 
orally the work required of them. 

Ht^/ier Class (eight hours). —The reader for advanced 
classes is now studied. At least thirty selections are 
mastered yearly. The first step toward the proper 
understanding of a selection lies in readmg same aloud 
faultlessly, and in speaking upon its subject matter. 
The greatest care must be given to correct expression 
Oral reproduction exercises are continued with 
greater strictness, the teacher ever requiring more and 
more of the pupils. 

A number of poems, especially songs of the people, 

are learned by heart. 

Before leaving school the pupils should be able to 
read understandingly the more difficult selections, 
which, in subject matter, are not too far above them. 
They should be able to express clearly and correctly 
the subject matter of such selections. 

Reading and the other language exercises should 
enable the pupils to spell and punctuate correctly 
Should the same faults often occur, the teacher must 



I20 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

devote special attention thereto. Words alike in sound 
and foreign words in common use demand special 
drill. 

In penmanship the German and Latin scripts are 
practised at stated hours. Proverbs and sayings of the 
people serve as copies. 

Pupils must learn to write neatly and legibly. 

The different forms of sentences are studied with 
reference to punctuation ; parts of speech ; the forma- 
tion and use of participles ; the declension of adjectives 
with and without definite and indefinite articles ; the 
declension of pronouns ; prepositions and their uses ; 
government of verbs and adjectives ; conjugation of 
verbs ; analysis of sentences ; direct and indirect dis- 
course ; word building. 

All the work is introduced and practised with practi- 
cal examples. 

In composition the reproduction exercises are con- 
tinued, and short themes are written on familiar sub- 
jects. Pupils are often asked, at the close of a lesson 
in natural history, geography, the history of the 
Fatherland and religion, to write what they have 
learned. 

Careful attention is paid to ordinary business forms, 
letters, bills, notes, receipts, etc. Letters are prepared 
ready to post. 

All written work should be done neatly. 



The penmanship of the pupils of all grades and schools 

is uniformly good, — far better on the average than our 

schools can show. As has been said, writing 
"Writing. . . , ^ , r ^i 

and readmg m the first grade frequently 

go on together, practice in writing words and sen- 
tences following closely an understanding of them in 
reading. 



LANGUAGE 121 



Custom varies as to the time of beginning the use of 

ink in writing. Most frequently, I judge, use of Pen 

, . , . 1 -• and Ink. 

the use of pen and mk is begun sometime 

during the first year, at times as early as the third month. 

Books with "copies" or models are rarely seen, 
blank-books being used instead. The proper forms of 
letters are taught from small charts and from gi^nk writ- 
the blackboard. Great care is taken to have ^^s-^^^^^- 
every page of the blank writing-book neatly kept, and 
all of the other writing is always most carefully done. 
I do not remember to have seen a single language exer- 
cise-book carelessly written. Many teachers make a 
practice of examining and marking each page of the 
writing-book when it is completed. 

The German letters are written at the beginning of 
the course, and practice upon them is con- ^^^ ^^ 
tinned from two to four years, when both German 
German and Latin script forms are used. 

In early practice the small letters are given first, and 
are taught in the order of their complexity. Great 
care is taken with this letter drill-work, it Early prac- 
being continued until well-formed letters are 
made. Movement exercises also are given in the lower 
grades. Various plans of conducting such exercises 
are pursued. Sometimes the writing of letters and 
words is accompanied by counting, and sometimes by 
describing each stroke of the pen, — as ''upward," 
"downward," etc. 



122 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

The method of teaching movements, as well as other 
points in connection with writing, is shown in the fol- 
lowing brief record of a visit in a first grade (first year) 
school in Berlin. 

The teacher talks for some time about a band of 
music so as to draw out from the pupils the word drum 
{Pazike). There is also shown a picture of a drum on 
the blackboard. The teacher then writes on the black- 
board in German script the word thus taught. (The 
two kinds of script are not used until the second or 
third year.) The letters are made large and very 
slowly. As she writes (this teacher is a lady, and the 
pupils are girls), she describes each movement thus : 
" Little hill, rounded turn, light upward, point, deep 
downward, rounded turn, light upward, open little ^gg, 
enclose, heavy downward, light upward, heavy down- 
ward, high up, heavy downward, long little Q^gg,'' etc. 

The teacher then asks the children to write in the air 
the same words, and say what she has said as they 
write. This they do singly and together. The words 
describing the movements are very pretty and musical ; 
thus, the above directions are : " Kleiner Berg, umge- 
bogen, fein hinauf, Spitze, tief herunter, umgebogen, 
fein hinauf, ofnes Eichen, hagen, stark herunter, fein 
hinauf, stark herunter, hoh hinauf, stark herunter, 
langes Eichen." 

Teacher asks, How many syllables has this word .-* 
What is the first syllable .? What is the second sylla- 



LANGUAGE 123 

ble ? Answers are given by pupils singly and in con- 
cert ; the pupils clap hands as they repeat the syllables. 
What is the first sound ? What is the second sound ? 
Third ? Last ? Now take slates and write this word 
very slowly and carefully. One pupil at a time repeats 
the directions above given ; the rest write together. 

i This seems to insure slowness. Teacher examines 

i 

slates, stopping and assisting those who fail to do the 

work to suit her. 

Shading is taught early in the course, and is some- 
times practised in connection with movement exercises, 
emphasis being placed upon the words of direction 
which denote the shaded lines. Thus, in a school 
where ink had been used by the pupils but two weeks, 
I heard the following exercise : — 

The teacher writes in large letters upon the black- 
board the word t/m^ (das). Pupils follow same move- 
ments in the air, emphasizing such words as indicate 
shaded lines, thus : — 



Up 


(softly i 


spoken). 




Down 


u 


(( 




Up 


it 


(I 




Left 


(C 


(( 




Half circle 


(spoken 


. with emphasis). 


Down 


(I 


u 


<< 


Up 


(softly e 


;poken). 




Half circle 


(spoken 


L with emphasis). 



124 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

The teacher and pupils then .work with the word 
violet ( Veilchen) in the same way. The patterns are 
left upon the board ; and pupils are asked to write the 
words first upon the slate, afterwards in the blank- 
books. Teacher sharply criticises each pupil who 
makes a mistake, and shows upon the blackboard 
wherein the letter is wrongly formed. 

Not nearly so much time is given to writing, as such, 
in the higher grades as in the lower. Indeed, in many 
schools no special practice in writing is given beyond 
the fifth school year; the pupils being expected to 
retain the skill they acquired in the lower grades, 
and to gain facility in their subsequent dictation and 
composition work. In the latter work the writing is 
made an important feature, and in some schools all 
carelessly written work has to be re-written. One 
sees in the schools but little writing with the lead- 
pencil, and, as a rule, no careless copying and hasty 
taking of notes, which almost inevitably destroy the 
good effects of all previous instruction. 

Much attention is given to dictation exercises in 
schools of all grades. In many schools one dictation 
Dictation exercise a week is given ; the aim being to 
xercises. tg^ch correctness in spelling, syllabication, 
punctuation, and use of capitals. The exercises are 
carefully adapted to the age and ability of the pupils, 
and consist of phrases and sentences with which the 
pupils are somewhat familiar. 



LANGUAGE I 25 

The chief value of such exercises lies in their 
regularity, and in their methodical correction by the 
teacher. The plan generally pursued is to give to the 
pupils a few words at a time for them to write and punc- 
tuate as well as they can. The mistakes are marked 
with red ink by the teacher, and the whole exercise is 
then re-written carefully in the dictation exercise book. 
This work is continued once a week through the 
greater part of the course. 

There are few special lessons in spelling heard in 
any of the grades ; such lessons are not greatly needed, 
owing to the phonetic character of the Ian- spelling and 
guage. What little training the pupils get derivations. 
in spelling is had in the dictation language lessons, and 
in the "word" lessons, in which homonyms, synonyms, 
and derivations are studied. 

In one school which I visited — fifth-year grade — 
the teacher had a list of difficult words, and asked con- 
cerning each word. How shall it be written ? The 
pupils answered by giving the difficult part only, thus 
saving much time. In each case, however, the pupil 
would repeat the word very distinctly, separating it into 
syllables slowly ; e.g., Ver-woh-nen, Rho-ne. 

In derivations very interesting work is done in the 
higher grades, — sometimes as early as the fourth year, 
by leading the pupils to collect a number of words 
having the same root ; also by having them learn the 
force of prefixes and suffixes. In all such work the art 



126 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

of drawing from the pupils the principal facts is admir- 
ably shown. 

In a first class of a Berlin people's school I saw 
books in the hands of pupils in which they had written 
a great number of words, their component parts, and 
the meaning of each part. In some cases where the 
common meaning of the word could not be directly 
traced, reasons for the changed form were given. 

In all grades of the people's schools the reciting 
from memory of choice selections of poetry and prose 
Recitations ^^ ^ common practice. The selections are 
from Memory, generally taken from the German classics, 
even in the lowest grades of schools. Much concert 
recitation of these selections is noticeable, especially in 
the lower grades. The teachers, as a rule, make a 
great point of teaching the selection thoroughly before 
it is committed to memory. This is done by graphic 
explanations and by questions designed to draw out 
the pupils' thought. From what I could learn, I judge 
that declamation is not much practised in any of the 
schools. 

In all the upper grades original compositions are 
written frequently and regularly in books designed 
Original ^^^ ^^^ purpose. The subject matter of the 
Compositions, compositions is generally drawn from the 
regular studies, — geography, history, and elementary 
science. Preparation for the written work is thus 
made in the regular recitations, the only added features 



LANGUAGE I 27 

being the mechanical part connected with writing and 
the binding together of the various parts of a subject 
to make a connected whole. In subjects connected 
with elementary science, drawings in illustration of 
descriptions are frequently found. 

As to the amount of original composition work done, 
custom seems to vary ; but in no school of the upper 
grades did I see less than one composition a week 
written carefully, after correction of a first draught, in 
a composition book. Some courses of study distinctly 
state that one composition a week shall be the mini- 
mtim, adding that the teacher is to correct carefully the 
composition, which is to be re-written in an exercise 
book. The corrected copy is to be "looked through," 
and both copies are to be preserved. 

Perhaps I can explain the methods employed in 
teaching composition in no better way than to present 
an abstract of a few simple rules which are given as a 
guide to teachers.^ 

1. See that the pupils have clear ideas of the sub- 
jects to be treated. The simple compositions are the 
most instructive. 

2. The material should be of every possible kind, 
including what is observed, told, and read. 

3. " Practice makes the master." Short original 
compositions should be called for frequently. 

4. The pupil's thought as well as expression should 
be as original as possible. 

5. Simplicity is a proof of clearness of ideas. 

1 Leutz's Lehrbuch, II. Teil p. 339. 



128 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

6. There should be progressive steps from the simple 
to the complex. Therefore the teacher should have a 
definite plan laid out for the year. 

There seems to be a great difference of opinion 
respecting the amount of technical grammar to be 
Technical taught in elementary schools and the time 
Grammar. ^^ which it should be begun. So far as I 
could learn, the prevailing custom was to have more 
technical grammar than we have in our grammar 
schools and to begin the subject earlier in the course. 
In many schools of the fourth grade or year, and even 
in some of the third grade, I found the parts of speech, 
subject and predicate, and kinds of sentences taught. 

In high schools the subject of grammar is taught 
with greater thoroughness and strictness than in the 
people's schools. 

In many people's schools the following principles are 
made the basis of work in grammar : — 

1. Grammar should not be pursued as a separate 
subject, but always in connection with spoken and 
written language work. 

2. Grammar should be pursued in the people's 
schools only so far as it is necessary to a correct under- 
standing and use of language. 

Although there are in some schools little text-books 
containing the various declensions and conjugations, 
and the simpler rules of construction, most of the 
teachers seem to prefer teaching grammar orally in 



LANGUAGE 1 29 

connection with the reading-book. The course of 
studies in Saxony states that '' the reading-book is to 
be used as the text-book for teaching grammar, although 
the use of an outline book by pupils is allowed." Yet 
the teachers working under this course are reminded 
that the " central point of all grammatical instruction is 
the reading-book." 

Considerable emphasis is placed upon analysis of 
sentences, which is begun early in the course. In one 
school of the third grade (third year) I found the fol- 
lowing work done : — 

Teacher places upon the blackboard the sentence, 
** The scholar zvorks,'' and asks the following questions : 
What is the subject } Why 1 (Generally the predicate 
is the first part of the sentence called for.) What is 
" the " f Name the definite articles. Decline '' the 
scholar'' Name the indefinite articles. 

The teacher then writes another sentence, " The rose 
is red^' and asks, "What is the subject.? Why.? What is 
the predicate } Why .? ^^ Red'' is called the predicate, 
and pupils are taught to say that it is the predi- 
cate, because it answers the question How is the rose } 
Pupils also say that an adjective is the predicate when 
it answers the question What kind } ( Was fur ?) 

Again the teacher places upon the blackboard the 
sentence, '^The tree is a plant," and asks similar ques- 
tions, drawing from the pupils the statement, The 
predicate may consist of a verb, adjective, or noun. 



130 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

When questioned as to whether this work was not 
too difficult for pupils of the third grade, the teacher 
said he thought not, when not pushed too far. The 
subject, he said, should be treated simply and taken in 
connection with the reading-lesson. 

In the higher classes I noticed that the examples for 
study were all quotations from celebrated authors, and 
that in these examples the pupils would indicate 
where the punctuation marks were. Rules of construc- 
tion and of punctuation were constantly required from 
the pupils. 

The grammatical forms in the German language are 
so much more complex than in the English that it is 
difficult to show exactly the kind of work that is done, 
but the following exercise will illustrate a principle 
which is quite generally followed in teaching grammar ; 
viz., to deduce rules and principles, and to learn gram- 
matical forms from many examples. 

The teacher places upon the blackboard the sentences : 

1. The man fights. The men fight. 

2. The arm of the man is strong. The arms of the 
men are strong. 

3. To the brave man honor is due. To the brave 
men honor is due. 

4. Arms adorn the man. Arms adorn the men. 
With these sentences before them, the pupils are 

called upon to distinguish singular and plural forms 
in respect to the endings of nouns and the articles. 



LANGUAGE I3I 

Afterward, the endings of the four cases are noted, 
the different relations being shown by the questions, 
Who ? Whose ? To whom f Whom f Similar sen- 
tences are placed before the pupils and the same points 
are reviewed, until the articles and endings of the two 
numbers and four cases are well known. Practice in 
supplying correct forms in elliptical sentences follows. 
This form of the application of principles and rules 
seems to be much more commonly used than the 
correction of incorrect sentences. 

I noticed in some schools of the lower grades, 
pupils were led to use the terms, "object-word," 
** action-word," ''relation-word," and even for the four 
cases to say "who-case," '' Whose-case," ''to-whom- 
case," and '' whom-case." 



132 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER X 

GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 

In Saxony and other parts of Germany, the course 
in Geography provides that "home knowledge" {Hei- 
Courseof matskunde) be given during the third and 
Studies. fourth school years, it being understood that 

by "home" is meant the city or town in which the 
pupils live and its surroundings. The Prussian course 
includes the government district and province as 
material for study during the third and fourth years. 

The following detailed course^ for the last half of 
the third year in Baden shows the character of the 
work demanded before distant regions are taken up. 
The first part is evidently a review of what has been 
previously observed. 

Conversations upon the town and vicinity. Observa- 
tion lessons : measuring (by steps) and descriptions of 
the schoolroom, the schoolhouse, and yard according 
to directions (by the sun) ; observation and description 
of the nearest surroundings of the schoolhouse, streets, 
and most important buildings, squares, etc. 

Drawing of objects that have been observed. The 
plans are first drawn, with reference to directions, and 
approximate distances, upon a blackboard laid hori- 
zontally. 

1 Leutz's Lehrbuch, II. Teil, p. 224. 



GEOGRAPHY 



133 



Consideration of a plan of the schoolhouse and vicin- 
ity. Conversations upon the inhabitants of the town — 
the number of people and of families, the difference in 
sex, age, occupations, authority, etc., all being con- 
nected with ethical instruction. After attention has 
been given to the town, instruction by observation and 
descriptions should be extended to the neighborhood. 
For this purpose visits to the neighboring forests, 
meadows, and fields should be made — highlands and 
valleys, ponds and streams of water, should be observed 
with constant reference to direction, distance, etc. In 
these observations essential geographical ideas are de- 
veloped as of horizon, hill, mountain, mountain chain, 
valley, mountain peak, slopes, foot of the mountain, 
plain, brook, river, spring, banks, bed, mouth, branches, 
island, peninsula, lake, sea, bay, etc. 



Then follow directions for drawing the places which 
have been observed. 

A large share of the last four years of the course is 
expected to be given to the pupils' state and Germany. 
Nearly all of this study, as well as that of foreign 
countries, is of the physical and political features. 

Not much time is allowed for the study of mathe- 
matical geography. The course of Saxony provides 
that it be taught not as a separate subject, but in 
connection with physical and political geography. It 
states further that only the most important parts of the 
subject shall be taught, such as the shape, size, and 
movements of the earth, its relations to the sun and 
moon, and the phenomena attending these relations. 
In the Prussian course the following subjects connected 



134 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

with mathematical geography are recommended to be 
taught in the advanced grades : — 

I. The Horizon. 2. Representations of points and 
lines. 3. Shape of the earth. 4. Motions of the earth. 
5. Seasons and zones. 6. Fixed stars. 7. Sun and 
moon. 8. Calendar. 

Text-books in geography generally have no maps, 
and consist of bare outlines of essential facts. The 
Books and teacher is supposed to give in the recita- 
Apparatus. ^^^^ ^y[ details of information, or lead the 
pupils to infer them. Indeed, in several schools which 
I visited, no books for study were in the hands of 
pupils. In such schools the topics were developed in 
the recitation, and copied into blank-books. 

An atlas is in the hands of pupils in all grades 
beyond the third. The maps in the atlases are invari- 
ably good, representing the general features of all 
important countries, and all features of Germany in 
great detail. Graphic representations by colors, and 
outlines of comparative areas, and zones having the 
same climate, vegetation, and rainfall, abound in all 
of the higher grade atlases, and to some extent in the 
atlases used by elementary school pupils. 

All grades and kinds of schools are very fully sup- 
plied with geographical apparatus. Maps, charts, and 
pictures of various kinds are found in the apparatus 
room connected with all graded schools, while the 
globe and blackboard, ready for use, are found in all 



GEOGRAPHY 1 35 

class-rooms. The maps are nearly all of two kinds, 
— one kind to represent the political features of a 
country or section, and another kind to represent the 
physical features. The relief maps do not seem to be 
widely used for any other purpose than to represent 
land elevations and slopes. 

Raised maps are not in general use. Some of the 
best which I saw were made of pasteboard by the 
pupils and teacher. 

In the teaching of races, occupations, manners and 
customs, productions, etc., constant use of pictures is 
made. Nearly every school is well supplied ^ 
with large charts, from two to four feet long, Pictures, 
illustrating a great variety of subjects; such as im- 
portant cities, mountain and lake scenery, occupations 
of the people in different countries, etc. Many of 
these pictures are beautifully colored, and all are good 
representations of what they are intended to teach. 

In comparison with corresponding schools in Amer- 
ica, the German schools are far more thorough in what 
is called home geography, while in a knowl- „ 
edge of foreign countries our children would Geography, 
seem to have the advantage. By home geography I 
mean more than what is done in the lower grades as 
preparation for subsequent study. That is done in the 
German schools as thoroughly as in our best schools, 
while the minute study of the country and neighbor- 
hood in higher grades in respect to surface, drainage, 



136 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

soil, productions, occupations, etc., is pursued to a 
degree quite unknown in our schools. School excur- 
sions for the purpose of observation are made by- 
schools of all grades, and vary in extent, from those 
which are made after school in the afternoon to those 
which are made by cars and on foot into the country, 
and which take several days to complete. On several 
occasions I heard teachers ask pupils what had been 
noticed during such excursions, the object being to 
impress by review the facts observed, and to arrange 
them in logical order. It should be mentioned thai 
facilities for making long excursions are easier in Ger- 
many than in America, and that they can be much 
more cheaply made. For a few cents apiece a school 
can be transported in third and fourth class cars 
twenty or thirty miles into the country, and by special 
arrangements at country inns for sleeping, the pupils 
can, with the aid of a knapsack of bread and sausage, 
live for several days at an expense but little in advance 
of the cost of living at home. 

The drawing of plans in connection with home geog- 
raphy is universally carried on in the lower grades, 
pj^jj Sometimes I found the plans, showing the 

Drawing. progressive order of the work from the 
beginning, preserved in a blank-book. The most com- 
plete instance of this kind which I noted was in a 
fourth year class in Weimar. The pupils' books 
showed a series of plans most carefully drawn from 



GEOGRAPHY 1 37 

those of the schoolroom to elaborate maps of sec- 
tions of country extending twenty miles from Weimar. 
These plans and maps were carefully drawn to scale, 
and the elevations noted in various ways. The method 
was to have the drawings placed upon the blackboard 
as the observations proceeded, and afterwards copied 
into the books. 

In some schools I found moulding carried on with a 
good degree of success — even as late as the fifth year. 
I observed that in all cases the moulding ^^^ 
was a representation of what had already ^°^^<^^'^&- 
been observed and talked about. The simplest devices 
are sometimes used. For example, in one school 
where the geography of a region of country twenty or 
thirty miles away had been carefully studied by the 
aid of maps, etc., there was constructed upon white 
paper a sand mould of the section, having creases for 
brooks and rivers, and strings for roads. 

It is safe to say that two-thirds of the time devoted 
to geography is given to the study of Germany.^ The 
physical features of the country receive 

^ ■' -^ Thorough 

special attention, as shown in the following Study of 

. Germany. 

notes of two recitations, which I heard in 

the practice school connected with the university of 

Jena : — 

/. Class. Fifth year in school. 

Subject : Erz Mountain district. 

1 For model lesson in geography of a portion of Germany, see p. 195. 



138 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

The pupils are called upon, first to repeat the sub- 
stance of the previous lesson upon the upper Erz 
Mountain district, the topics being given by the 
teacher. The topics are : — 

1. Climate. 

2. Occupation of people. 

{a) Agriculture. 
{b) Cattle raising. 
{c) Hand work. 

3. Manners and customs of people. 

Then follows the advance lesson, which is upon the 
lower Erz Mountain district. The map is before the 
class with a blackboard upon which the topics are 
placed as soon as they are developed. 

The object to be reached is first given by the teacher, 
as, "We will first speak of the surface of this region." 
Then follow questions, bringing out ideas concerning 
the height and appearance of hills and mountains, com- 
pared with those of the upper district. The pupils 
answer in entire sentences. The second topic is cli- 
mate, and inferences are made by the pupils from the 
character of the surface. Comparison and inferences 
like the following are made : *' The surface of this 
region is lower than the upper district ; mountains less 
high ; less exposed ; therefore there is less snow here, 
and the winters are shorter." When all the points of a 
topic are brought out by questions, they are repeated 
by the pupils without questions; the heads are placed 



GEOGRAPHY 1 39 

upon the blackboard. The teacher constantly gives 
facts or information which the pupils could not infer, 
such as the existence of forests, beauty of the meadows, 
etc. 

I note the following good features of this lesson : — 

1. The teacher has a definite plan and follows it. 

2. Constant association of ideas. 

3. Inferences by pupils from known causes. 

4. Constant repetition. 

5. Pupils led to express themselves fully and accu- 
rately. 

6. Teacher has great patience with pupils ; no haste. 
Same class as above : next recitation. 

Pupils first repeat substance of last recitation, — 
next say what the subject of the day's lesson is. The 
various topics to be discussed are also given by pupils, 
the teacher placing them upon the blackboard. Pupils 
infer, from what they have previously heard and seen, 
the occupations of the people of the district (working 
in factories). Samples of questions as follows : Why 
should there be so many factories here .-* Where would 
they be likely to be.-' (Pupils point on the map and 
tell.) What would they be likely to make here ? Why 
woollen goods ? How is this done. What is weaving ? 
What else used here in manufacturing ? What is made 
from flax.^ How.? Any other articles used.-* Why.-* 
Why cheaper } Where is cotton obtained ? What 
make the large towns .? (Several large towns pointed 



140 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

out on the map and noted on the blackboard.) What 
turns the wheels ? When not water enough, what is 
used? How is the steam generated? What kind of 
fuel is used ? Where found ? Why so many factories 
exactly at this point ? (pointing on the map.) 

The teacher describes the process of mining the 
coal, occasionally interspersing the description with 
questions. From the situation of the country, he leads 
the pupils to infer a difference of climate and vegeta- 
tion from those of the region studied in the previous 
recitation. 

The topics are placed upon the blackboard, as before, 
and the recitation is concluded with a connected story 
by the pupils of all the facts learned. 

One of the good features of the above lessons, that 
of drawing inferences from known causes, is some- 
Cause and times made very prominent in a recitation. 
Effect. Thus in studying productions and the occu- 

pations of the people scarcely a word is said by the 
teacher in the way of information, all the facts being 
drawn by inference from the pupils. Occasionally also 
the pupils are called upon to trace the causes of certain 
effects, as described in the following notes of a recita- 
tion heard in Dresden. 

Subject : Leipsic and surrounding country. Each 
of the pupils has a progressive map, with ranges of 
mountains and hills and streams of water carefully 
outlined. The teacher draws from the pupils the fact 



GEOGRAPHY 



141 



that Leipsic is a centre of trade, and leads them to tell 
the probable original cause of its being and continuing 
to be a centre. The pupils are asked to tell the loca- 
tion and condition of the people several years before, 
and to show what peculiar conditions of surface and 
streams probably helped to fix the location of the city 
where it is. The subsequent helps of railroads and the 
location of other cities are noted, and finally the present 
fairs are described, with all the different kinds of wares, 
brought to them from the various sections of Europe. 

With so much time and attention given to the study 
of Germany, it is a matter of interest to note what 
features of foreign geography claim the 

Study of 

attention of teachers during the compara- Foreign 

, . ,, , . T . . , Countries, 

tively short term allotted to it. It is noticed 

in the first place that only the important physical and 
political features are emphasized. These features are 
reviewed with such frequency as to insure thorough- 
ness. Further it is discovered that those points of 
information which are of general interest receive 
special attention ; and lastly, especially in the higher 
grades, features as effects in relation to causes are 
studied. Two examples of lessons heard in elementary 
people's schools may suffice to illustrate these points. 

First Class. Subject: Africa. Large outline map 
on the wall in front. Open atlases before the pupils. 
First, review of physical and political features of the 
Continent by rapid questioning. The names and 



142 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

location of a half dozen rivers, mountain ranges, and 
towns are called for, and some boundaries of political 
divisions. These are given by the pupils as if they 
had been the subject of review before. The advance 
is then taken, which is Southern Africa. The teacher 
talks rapidly and interestingly of the settlement, occu- 
pations of the people, wars, government, etc., occasion- 
ally asking a few questions. The recitation closes with 
the repetition by the pupils of all the teacher has told 
them. The teacher informs me that other important 
sections of Africa are to be treated in the same way. 

Second Class. Subject : Asia. 

First, review of general physical features. Then 
follows the advance upon Western Asia, indicated by 
the following questions, pupils being allowed to look at 
maps in answering the questions : What kind of vege- 
tation here } What kind of grass ? What does the 
desert look like } Where do the flowers grow } What 
kinds .-* What connection is there between the flower 
and the desert } What kind of people are found here } 
What can they do } What can they not do .? What 
name is given to them } Compare the Aral and Cas- 
pian Seas. How alike.? How different .? (The teacher 
here gives information which is repeated by the pupils.) 
What progress has Russia made } What railroads have 
been built } What is carried upon them .? What coun- 
try near by is important on account of its political rela- 
tions with the Russian possessions .-* What country 



HISTORY 143 

«» 

lies between ? How has it suffered ? What is the dis- 
pute ? What was the cause ? How long ago did it 
begin ? (The teacher answers such questions as the 
pupils cannot answer, and tells many interesting things 
of the relations and desires of Russia and England.) 
Why does not Russia value highly the northern and 
eastern parts ? Size and extent compared with Ger- 
many ? Why unfruitful ? 

The recitation closes by a review of what has been 
learned of Western Asia, some facts of history con- 
cerning Alexander the Great which had been given 
them previously, or which had been read by them be- 
ing brought in. 

In most of the elementary schools the study of his- 
tory is confined to the two upper classes, and in each 
year the entire range of history from the be- q^^^^^ ^^ 
ginnings of German history to the present History, 
time is gone over. The advisability , of limiting the 
subjects to be studied or of distinctly defining those 
subjects which ought to be known is shown in the Ber- 
lin course in history, which provides for the thorough 
study of thirty-one subjects in the last two years of the 
people's school course. These are as follows : — 

I. The old Germans. 2. Wars of the Cimbrians 
and Teutons with the Romans. 3. Arminius. 4. 
Migrations of the people. Attila. 5. Charles the 
Great. 6. Henry I. 7. Otto I. 8. Henry IV. and 
Gregory. 9. The first crusade. 10. Frederick Barba- 
rossa. II. Rudolf of Habsburg. 12. The knights. 



144 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

13. Inventions. 14. Discoveries. 15. Charles V. 
16. The Thirty Years' War. 17. Fight of the Ger- 
mans with the Lusatians. 18. Albrecht the Bear. 
19. The Bavarians and the false Waldemar. 20. Fred- 
erick I. 21. Frederick II. 22. Joachim I. 23. Joa- 
chim II. 24. Johann Sigismund. 25. The great 
elector. 26. Frederick III. 27. Frederick William I. 
28. Frederick and his heroes. 29. Frederick Wil- 
liam II. 30. Frederick William III. with especial con- 
sideration of the War of Freedom and its heroes and 
statesmen. (Scharnhorst, Bliicher, Gneisenau, York, 
Kleist, Billow, Stein, and Hardenberg. 31. The Em- 
peror William ; the Danish, Austrian, and French wars 
and their most celebrated men. 

There are now added the names of other persons 
and events which have become prominent since the 
date of issuing the above course — 1873. 

In the history recitation perhaps more than in the 
geography recitation, the teacher takes up much time 
in giving information connected with the 
theRecita- lesson. He generally speaks with great ani- 
^°°' mation, calling upon the pupils at short in- 

tervals to repeat the substance of what he has said. 

In all grades of schools the central point in the 

teaching of history is the Fatherland. Especially is 

this true in the people's schools, as shown in 
P&triotism. 

the general and specific courses of study. 
In the course for the Saxony people's schools it is 
stated that the chief purpose of the study of history 
is to lead the pupils to know the principal features of 
the development of the German people, and that the 



HISTORY 145 

study of the history of foreign countries is allowable in 
so far only as it has relation to Germany. In the Prus- 
sian course the object of the study is stated to be the 
development of a love of country and of a loyalty to 
the royal family. These directions are implicitly fol- 
lowed by teachers at every convenient opportunity. 
Whatever can be said of the greatness of Germany 
is told the children, especially whatever shows her 
prowess in war. 

Great use is made of biography, especially of persons 
who have been instrumental in fostering the interests 
of the German people. The courses in his- 

Biography. 

tory for the first year generally provide for 
learning about the lives of celebrated men. In the 
course above given ^ for example Nos. i, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 
II, 15, 16, and 20 are recommended for the work of the 
second class. 

The memorizing of dates is limited to the dates of 
the most important events. And those dates are con- 
stantly reviewed and referred to as points Memorizinff 
for comparison. In the Berlin course of °^^^^^^- 
study above referred to, the dates (generally only the 
year) of sixty-three events are to be learned in the 
second class, and of fifty-three more events in the first 
class, or about six new dates on the average every 
month. These dates, it will be remembered, extend 
over fifteen centuries, about half of them being in- 
cluded in the last two centuries. 

1 Page 143. 



146 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

One noticeable feature of the teaching of history is 

its connection in the recitation with geography, all 

places referred to being located by the aid of 

Geography in 

Connection the map. My notes frequently refer to 
the fact that atlases or maps were used 
during the recitation, and that the crayon and black- 
board were brought into frequent use in locating places 
and movements of armies in battle. 

Pictures prepared especially for teaching history are 

also in constant use. These pictures are of the same 

construction as the geographical pictures, and 

illustrate celebrated buildings and persons, 

scenes of great events, coins, monuments, etc. 



ARITHMETIC I47 



CHAPTER XI 

ARITHMETIC 

The work done in arithmetic I found to vary con- 
siderably, both in extent and in the methods pursued. 
In the Prussian people's schools and in pre- course of 
paratory departments of high schools, the Studies, 
course generally provides for the teaching of numbers 
to 100 during the first year. That this work is too diffi- 
cult is evident from the amount of urging which the 
teachers find to be necessary, and that the work is 
not thoroughly done is shown by the poor work of 
higher grades of pupils. 

The course of studies issued by the government of 
Saxony provides that numbers from i to i,ooo shall be 
developed during the first four years of the course. 
Yet it is distinctly stated that this work may be ex- 
tended, provided it can be done without a sacrifice of 
thoroughness. German money, weights and measures, 
are to be taught in the first four years, and some opera- 
tions with fractions most commonly used — as halves, 
thirds, fourths, tenths, and hundredths. 

During the last four years of the course common and 



148 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

decimal fractions, applications of percentage, and the 
Rule of Three are required to be taught. ^ 

How liberally this plan is interpreted and applied in 
city schools is shown by the following course as indi- 
cated by pamphlets of problems designed for the various 
grades in Leipsic : — 

First Year. — Combinations (addition, subtraction, 
multiplication, and division) to 20. Multipliers and 
divisors to 9. 

Second Year. — Operations of numbers to 100. Ad- 
dition and subtraction of tens and units (43 -|- 28 ; 
46 — 27). Multipliers and divisors to 9. No figure 
work in this grade. 

Third Year. — Combinations to 1,000. Mental oper- 
ations in adding and subtracting numbers of hundreds 
and tens, and tens and units (450 -j- 290 ; 920 — 480). 
Multipliers and divisors to 9 (i 12 X 8 ; 856 -7- 4). Slate 
work : Column addition. Multipliers and divisors to 
25. Fractional parts of numbers (J, ^, 20" ^^ ^ Mark). 
Work with common weights and measures and German 
currency. Compound numbers begun (16 days, 18 
hours -|- 10 days, 12 hours). 

Fourth Year. — Figure work with integral numbers. 
Computations with simple fractions (halves, fourths, 
etc.), and with fractions of like denomination. 

Fifth Year. — Continuation of fourth year work, as 
follows : I. Reduction ascending and descending with- 
out decimals. 2. Addition and subtraction of com- 
pound numbers without decimals. 3. Reduction as- 
cending and descending with decimals. 4. Addition 
and subtraction of compound numbers with decimals. 

5. Multiplication and division of compound numbers. 

6. Rule of Three by analysis. 

Sixth Year. — Fractions, as follows : i. Idea, origin, 

1 Lehrflan Sachsen, p. 56. 



- ARITHMETIC I49 

and value of the fraction. 2. Reduction of whole and 
mixed numbers to improper fractions and the reverse. 
3. Addition and subtraction of fractions having a com- 
mon denominator. 4. Multiplication and division of 
fractions with whole number for multiplier and divisor. 

5. Reduction of fractions to higher and lower terms. 

6. Reduction of fractions to fractions having a common 
denominator. 7. Addition and subtraction of unlike 
fractions. 8. Multiplication and division of fractions, 
with multiplier and divisor a fraction. 9. Decimal frac- 
tions, reading and writing. 10. Reduction of decimals 
to common fractions and the reverse. 11. Addition 
and subtraction of decimals, 12. Multiplication and 
division of decimals. 13. Geometrical problems. 

Sevejttk Year. — Proportion with fractions, interest, 
percentage, partnership, geometrical problems. 

Eighth Year. — Miscellaneous reviews of proportion, 
interest, and partnership. Equation of payments, dis- 
count, and present worth, allegation and general review. 

Text-books in the hands of pupils frequently consist 

only of problems logically arranged as indicated above. 

These books or pamphlets of problems are 

^ ^ ^ ^ Text-books 

supplemented by work given out by the andAppara- 

, -. . . tus. 

teacher from time to time. 

In several of the text-books in general use I notice 
that more mental work, especially in difficult combina- 
tions, is provided for than in our text-books, and com- 
paratively few reasoning problems are given in the 
books intended for pupils of the five lower grades 
(years). 

Subjects of sections are given, but the reviews are 
so frequent it may be said that much of the work pre- 



150 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

sented is without finger-posts or helps of any kind. 
All explanations, rules, and definitions are taught by 
the teacher. 

To enable American teachers to compare the work 
which their pupils are expected to do with the work of 
Work of each corresponding grades in Germany, I quote 
Year. f^ye problems selected at random from the 

miscellaneous problems at the end of each year's work 
as given in a popular book : — 

Second Year. — I. Four weeks are how many days? 
2. In a meadow are 26 cows, 10 sheep, 9 goats, and 8 
horses : how many animals there ? 3. How many legs 
have {a) 3 May bugs? {b) 4 geese? {c) 10 crabs? 4. 
What is the sum of all the numbers from i to 8 ? 
5. The difference between two numbers is 8. What 
can the numbers be ? 

Third Year. — (i.) 36 -[- 45 -|- 89 -]- 2 1 — 12 — 36 = ? 
(2.) 279 — 38 — 94 — 61 + 269 = ? (3.) Four boys earn 
daily 2 Marks apiece. Their father earns 5 times as 
much as one of his sons. How much do all earn 
together ? (4.) A boy went to the store for 27 cents' 
{Pfennigs) worth of sugar and 25 cents' worth of coffee. 
Having with him 7 ten-cent pieces, how much should 
he bring back ? (5.) A merchant made on Sunday 14 
Marks and on each succeeding day one Mark more than 
the day preceding. How much did he make during 
the entire week ? 

Fowth Year. — (i.) If a man works 8 hours daily on 
the average, how many hours does he work in the first 
quarter of the year? (2.) Subtract the sum of the 
numbers from 65 to 71 from the sum of the numbers 
from 98 — 112. (3.) How much is (36 X 47 X 51) — 
(21 X 38 X 12) ? (4.) A regiment has 12 companies, 
and each company has 245 men ; 95 men are away on a 



ARITHMETIC I5I 

furlough : how many men in the regiment ? (5.) A ckib 
consists of 325 members, who pay in all 3,900 Marks : 
how much does each member pay ? 

Fifth Year. — i. A man bought a piano for 360 
Marks, and paid every month 14 Marks 40 Pfenjiigs. 
How long would he be in paying for the piano ? 

[This problem would be the same if dollars were used 
instead of Marks, and cents instead of Pfennigs?^ 
2. 119 years 24 days 11 hours 
— 89 " 19 " 23 '' 

3. A man is in debt 4,800 Marks 80 Pfennigs. He 
pays \, then \, and finally yV of the debt. How much 
does he still owe ? 

4. A person pays for his breakfast 25 Pf., for his 
dinner i M. 10 Pf., and for his supper 65 Pf. What 
will be the cost of board during the first four months 
of 1 890 t 

5. 126 X 184.312 kg. ^ 168. 

Sixth Year. — I. {a) 3.4 -r 1.7 {b) 3.4 -r 0.17 {c) 
3.4-^0.17. 

2. How many times greater is ^ M. than 0.05 M. ? 

3. In a vessel there are 38^^ pint glasses of beer, 
which is y\ of the capacity of the vessel. What will 
the vessel hold t 

4. yV of the money in my pocket-book amounts to 
1.70 M. How much is \% of it t 

5. A ship sails 37.92 km. in 4 hours. How far does 
she go in i minute } 

Seventh and Eighth Years. — i. A man pays a tax 
of 48.40 M. yearly. How much property does he own 
if the tax is i ^ % of it t 

2. In an orchard there are 5 times as many apple- 
trees and 4 times as many cherry-trees as pear-trees. 
How many trees of each kind in the orchard } 

3. In a hotel 20 gas-jets are lighted, 6 hours daily, 
for 6 months, for which 500 M. are paid. What should 



152 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



1 



be the cost of lighting 24 gas-jets, 4 hours a day, for 9 
months ? 

4. How much money must be put in the bank, Dec. 
31, 1890, to get therefrom 978^ M. Dec. 31, 1891, 
interest 3% ? 

5. What is the capital of a man who receives 24.40 
M. daily, and his money earns 4)^ % } 

Numeral Frames (Rec/ien-Mackinen) are universally 
used in the lower grades. These frames are of various 
kinds — generally balls upon wires, in a 
frame four or five feet high. The balls are 
so large that they may be seen distinctly from all parts 
of the room. Charts having lines, dots, circles, and 
squares upon them are also used for elementary num- 
ber work. 

Blocks in forms suitable for teaching areas of sur- 
faces and contents of solids are extensively used. 

Disks, squares, and blocks are used for teaching 
fractions. The disks are sometimes constructed in 
such a way as to permit the fractional units to be 
separated and put together, to teach and illustrate the 
various combinations. 

Weights, measures, and charts are used to teach the 
elements of denominate numbers. 

As I have said, there is a great difference in the 
amount of work attempted in the first year. 

Examples of 

workinPri- Yet it is noticeable that the fourth year 
in school finds the pupils of all schools 
doing much the same work both in kind and amount. 



ARITHMETIC 



153 



7 



Various devices for teaching numbers in the lowest 
grades were observed, as will be shown in the following 
illustrative exercises : — 

In a school of the first grade in Berlin I found pupils 
working upon combinations to 
twenty, and combinations by 
tens to one hundred. Blocks 
and a numeral frame were be- 
fore the pupils. The numeral 
frame was four feet square, and 
had ten wires. Upon either 
side was a board a foot wide, 



J$r 



7^ 



Fig. I. 



concealing the balls. (Fig. i.) 

Teacher— (pushing in sight 12 balls upon the wires). 
"What does 12 consist of.?" (Calling upon one 

pupil.) 

Pupil _ " 12 consists of i ten and 2 units." 

Class in Concert. — '' 12 consists of i ten and 2 

units." 

The practice of having one pupil give an answer, 
and when correct, to have all the pupils repeat the 
answer, was continued throughout the exercise. The 
teacher moving the balls in quick succession, asked 
the following questions : 2 + 2 .? 12 + 2 ? 2 + 4? 12 + 4.? 
2 + 3 .? 12 + 3 .? 2 + 6 .? 12 + 6 .? 2 + 7 ? 12 + 7 .? 2 + 8 .? 
12 + 8 ? the pupils answering in entire sentences thus : 
2 and 2 are 4, etc. The same questions were given 
without the balls, and answered as before. 



154 



SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



The teacher continued as follows 



n 



-«-«- 


-o- 


■^ 


-♦- 


f 


# »* 


-^ 



Fig. 



71 — '* How can we get the 
halt of 12?" 

/'. — "Divide the lo balls 
and two balls into two equal 
parts." 

r. — ''Do this with the balls." 
With the short pointer the pupil divides the balls 
thus (Fig. 2), saying "the half of 12 is 6." 
T. — "2 times 6 are how many ? " 
P.~" 2 X 6 is 12." 
T. — "12 is how many times 6? " 
Pupils do not seem to know. Numeral frame used 
and all reviewed. All pupils interested, and indicate 

their readiness to 



» 



? 



i 



C 9090 



Fig. 



answer all ques- 
tions by show of 
— I r^ fino-er. 

1 here is occa- 
sionally seen a de- 
vice which some 
teachers like bet- 
ter than the numeral frame for teaching number. 
It consists of a frame having slides of counters 
on one side, and a blackboard on the other, thus : 
(Fig. 3-) 

a = slides closed ; ^ = slide wholly open ; c = slide partially open; 
a = blackboard raised so as to allow slide to move under it. 



ARITHMETIC 



155 



Quite often the relation between 
the numbers to ten is indicated by 
rows of blocks upon the teacher's 
desk, thus : (Fig. 4.) 

Large blocks are also used upon 

the teacher's desk to teach all the 

IJ combinations to twenty. Some- 

^'^" ^' times the blocks are divided into 

halves and fourths. In one school of the first grade, 

I saw such work as the following done : — 






Fig. 5. 



6-7-2. 8 -^ 4. 7 -T- 2. 9 -^ 4. 

To teach 7 -=- 2 the teacher placed 
7 blocks, thus : (Fig. 5) then to make 
the divisions equal, placed 3 blocks 
on one side, and three blocks on the other side, 
dividing the remaining block in two parts, and placing 
the pile as here represented (Fig. 6). 
The teacher said he taught only 
halves and fourths in this grade. 

Combinations by tens to 100 are 
generally practised in the first grade. 
The following notes of a visit in 
Eisenach indicate the kind of work done in this 
grade. 

Blocks and numeral frames used. The following 
questions asked and answered with and without 
objects : — 





LJ LJ 


_ 



Fig. 6. 



156 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

How many more than 10 is 20 ? 
'' 10 " 40 ? 
" " " " 20 " 40 ? 
" " '* " 40 '' 60? 
50+10? 50+30? 60 + 30? 
100 is how many more than 50? 
" " " " " '' 70? etc. 
I Mark (100 Pfe7t7iigs) less 30 Pfennigs ? 
I i^<2r^ less 50 Pfennigs ? 
How much must be added to 20 Pfennigs to mak3 
I Mark ? etc. 

How many times 20 is 40 ? 
How many times 30 is 60 ? etc. 
Tables of lo's, 20's, 30's, etc. are repeated forward 
and backward thus : i times 10= 10. 

2 times 10 = 20, etc. 

1 times 20 =r 20. 

2 times 20 = 40, etc. 
Many problems like the following are given based 

upon the tables as just given : — 

Cost of 3 books at 30 Pfennigs apiece ? etc. 

How many books can I buy for 60 Pfennigs, at 30 
Pfennigs apiece ? How many for 80 ? etc. 

In answer to the questions in division, pupils are 
allowed to say "8 -2 =4, because 2 X 4 is 8," and 
''\ of 10 is 2, because 2 X 5 is 10." 

In all operations the pupils of the two lowest grades 
are taught quite generally to work through and by tens. 



I 



ARITHMETIC 1 57 

The following examples of processes by which pupils 
are led to add and subtract numbers to 50 will illus- 
trate this method : — 

9+7 = 16 (9+1+10; 10+6 = 16) 
7+9 = 16(7+3 = 10; 10+6 = 16) 
23+8 = 31 (23+7 = 30; 30+1=31) 
38+6 = 44(38+2 = 40; 40+4=44) 
16—7 = 9(16—6^10; 10—1=9) 
33-8 = 25 (33-3 = 30; 30-5 = 25) 
41-9=32 (41-1=40; 40-8 = 32) 

This method is advocated as an aid to the memory, 
and because the " number memory " of some children 
is weak. After the first few months of practice, this 
form of analysis is abandoned, and combinations of all 
kinds are made directly. 

The following notes of the recitation of a third year 
class give a good example of rapid reckoning, nnd of 
the means of attaining quickness and accuracy : — 

Teacher gives rapidly 4 + 8 + 9 + 6, etc., until the 
sum is over 200. 

Several similar problems given, followed by problems 
in subtraction, beginning with a large number, and 
calling for successive subtractions as, from 208 take 6 
take 8, etc. This is not given very rapidly, — at the rate 
of about 18 numbers to subtract in a minute. Adding 
and subtracting by 2's, 3's, etc., followed by mental 
problems in multiplication and division. 



158 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Teacher gives problem 48 + 40, and says, — 

"What do you think of in adding 40? " 

Pupil, — '' The tens." 

Teacher gives quickly and sharply 83 + 40 + 50 + 
20 + 40, etc. Also 843 — 70 — 60 — 30 — 40, etc. 
Also 6 X 30, 4 X 40, 7 X 50, etc. 

Then 7x18. 

Teacher. — " What do you think of first in multiply- 
ing this number ? " 

Pupil. — ''ThQ tens." 

Teacher. — " Then what .-* " 

P?////. — "The units." 

Teacher asks for "explanation" of 7 X 18. Pupil 
says 7 X ID = 70, 7 X 8 = 56, 70 + 56 = 126. 

As a rule not so many subjects or rules of arith- 
metic are studied as with us, the time of the recitation 
Middle ^^ middle and higher grades being given to 

Grades. reviews of practical problems. Much men- 

tal work also, frequently by short processes, is done in 
these grades. In some schools I noticed that the 
teacher sought to review a subject or process from the 
beginning. These characteristics are illustrated by the 
following notes of middle grade lessons. 

In the fourth year class of a Berlin gymnasium I 
saw some rapid mental work in reduction — no books or 
slates in hands of pupils. The plan was to give ques- 
tions like the following in a kind of series, and ask for 
volunteers to give answers, — no explanations : — 



ARITHMETIC 1 59 

In I day how many hours ? 

In 3 days how many hours ? 

In 3 days and lo hours how many hours ? 

In 8 days and i6 hours how many hours ? 

In I foot how many inches ? 

In 6 feet how many inches ? 

In 6 feet and 8 inches how many inches ? 

In 8 feet and lo inches how many inches ? etc. 

In 48 hours how many days ? 

In 50 hours how many days ? 

In 100 hours how many days ? 

In 200 hours how many days ? etc. 

How much is a kilometre ? [Pupils give known dis- 
tances from the schoolhouse.] 

About how long would it take to walk slowly one 
kilometre.'* [Ans. : 15 minutes.] 

How long to walk 2 kilometres ? 

How long to walk 8 kilometres ? 

How long to walk 12 kilometres .-* 

How many kilometres in a (Prussian) mile } [Ans. : 
7 km. 500 m.] 

How long would it take to walk 7 km. ? 

How long would it take to walk 500 m. .-* 

How long would it take to walk a mile } 

How long would it take to walk 2 miles ? 

This work is continued until pupils show signs of 
weariness, then teacher places upon the blackboard the 
following problem in long division, thus : — 

825,643 : 78 



l60 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

The teacher with crayon in hand performs the prob- 
lem as indicated by the pupils. One pupil after 
another is called upon to recite while others listen. 
The words of explanation follow, the italicized figures 
and figures of the quotient only being placed upon the 
blackboard. The words expressing these numbers are 
spoken with great emphasis : — 

y8 goes into 82 once. Once y8 is 78, and 4 is 82. 
Bring down 5. y8 goes into 45 no times. Bring down 
6. y8 goes into 456 five times. 5 X 8 is 40, and 6 is 
46. 5X7 is 35, and 4 is 39, and 6 is 45. Bring 
down 4. y8 goes into 664 eight times. 8 X 8 is 64, 
and is 64. 8x7 is 56, and 6 is 62, and 4 is 66. 
Bring down 3. 78 goes into 403 five times. 5 X 8 is 
40, and 5 is 43. 5X7 is 35, and 4 is 39, and 1 is 40. 

The problem as it appears when completed is as 

follows : — 

825,643 : 78 = 10,585 
456 
664 

" 403 
13 

Occasional mistakes were noted in this class as in all 
fourth year classes which had attempted to do too 
much in earlier grades. Generally as much ground is 
gone over in the first year of the gymnasium as in the 
first two or three years of the public or people's 
schools. In fourth grades of the latter class in Berlin 



ARITHMETIC 



l6l 



I saw much better work done than that above noted. 
In one school fifty or more problems like the following 
were performed rapidly and accurately during a recita- 
tion hour : — 

In 3 days and i6 hours how many hours ? 

In 12 feet and 6 inches how many inches ? 

In 200 hours how many days ? 

A little device used by the teacher of this class 
helped to hold the interest of the pupils. He put the 
following upon the blackboard, rapidly questioning as 
he wrote : — 



gross. 

\ 



■12- 



-144- 
doz. 



12- 



units. 

/ 



r 



■52- 



yrs. mos. 
^^—12 — ^"^ 



30 N 

wks. days. hrs. 



mm. sec. 
-6o — ' ' — 6o — ^ 



Teacher with pointer, pointing to years, said 4 ; then 
pointing to months said 8, and "how many months .? " 

Pupils by show of hands indicate when they have 
the answer. 

In the same class review problems like the following 
were performed mentally : 834 + 134. 

400 — 164 : 6 X 24 — 144 ^ 24. 

240 -^24. 6 X 24 + 12 ; etc. 

Although formal explanations do not as a rule seem 
to be required from pupils of middle and lower grades. 



l62 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

analysis of problems in well-defined steps is often in- 
sisted upon in all grades. 

The following instance of work seen in a fourth- 
year grade of a Leipsic public school will illustrate 
what I mean : — 

Question. — ^ of 98 dozen ? 

Answer. — i of 96 doz. •=. 16 doz. \ of 24 single 
ones = 4. i of 98 doz. ■=i 16 doz. and 4. 

Qiies. — ;^ of 72 gross ? 

A71S, — J of 40 gross = 10 gross, i of 32 gross = 8 
gross. 10 gross + 8 gross = 18 gross. 

Ques. — ^ of 74 gross } 

Ans. — J of 72 gross = 18 gross. J of 24 doz. = 6 
doz. .". J of 74 gross = 18 gross and 3 doz. 

Ques. — i of 1 20 days 1 

Ans. — i of 80 ds. = 10 ds. J of 40 ds. = 5 ds. 
J of 120 ds. = 15 ds. 

Ques. — J of 123 days ? 

Ans. — J of 120 ds. := 15 ds. J of i d. = 3 h. J of 
3 ds. = 3 X 3 h. — 9 h. .'. J of 123 ds. = 15 ds. 9 h. 

Decimals to two places were used in this class. 

In the higher grades, mental work with large num- 
Hi her ^^^^ ^^^ logical analysis or explanations are 

Grades. required. Frequent reviews of a progressive 

character are made in these grades, much of the work 
being done without the aid of pencil or crayon. 

Two recitations of sixth and seventh year grades of 
a Leipsic public school were noted as follows : — 



ARITHMETIC 163 

Sixth Year. — Questions given by teacher. Volun- 
tary answers from pupils by show of hands. 

What decimal is equal to ^ ? to ^ ? to f ? to | ? to | ? 
to I? 

What common fraction is equal to .50? to .25? to 
.75 ? to .250? 

2 Pfemiigs is what decimal of a Mark ? 

211' <( i( (( i( a (( 

Q^ << (( (( (( (( t( 

One book cost 2 Pf. ' What cost a dozen books ? 
What cost 4 dozen books ? 6 dozen ? What cost a 
gross ? 

Five metres cost 75 Pf. What cost i metre ? What 
cost 3I metres ? 

One dozen cost 18 Pf. What cost 3^- dozen ? Ex- 
planation : If one dozen cost 18 Pf., | dozen costs 9 Pf. 
and f cost 45 Pf. What cost 2 dozen and 10 ? Expla- 
nation : I dozen cost 18 Pf. What cost 2 dozen and 10, 
or 2| dozen .? ^ of a dozen cost ^ of 18 Pf. =^ 3 Pf. y 
cost 17 X 3 =: 51 Pf. 

2i litres cost 36 Pf. What cost i litre ^ Explanation : 
2i or I litres cost 36 Pf. | of a litre cost ^ of 36 Pf., 
or 4 Pf. I or I litre, cost 4X4 Pf., or 16 Pf. 

If 2^ bushels last a family if months, how long will 
If bushels last.? Explanation: If 2^, or f bushels, 
last If, or I months, | bushel will last ^ of f months 
= ^ months ; and | of i bushel will last 2 X i months, 
or f months. ^ of a bushel will last i of f months, = f 



164 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

months ; and f bushel will last 5 X f months = V^ months 
= 1^ month. 

Figures indicating the processes are placed upon 
the blackboard by the pupil as he recites. 

Seventh Year. — All mental work during the recita- 
tion, and most of it review. Pupils answer with 
great promptness, being called upon promiscuously by 
the teacher. Many problems like the following are 
given : — 

*' Two kinds of coffee to be mixed together. 30 lbs. 
at I Mark a pound and 10 lbs. at 1.50 Mark a pound. 
For how much shall i lb. be sold to gain 20% } " 

Explanations given with readiness and clearness. 

5 % of %QQ Marks f Explanation : i % of 800 Marks 
= 8 M. ; 5 % of 800 M. = 40 M. Teacher leads pupils 
to explain it in another way, as follows : 5 % = ^V 5 2V of 
100 = 5 ; 2V of 800 r= 8 X 5 = 40. 

Similar problems, involving fractional numbers, given 
and explained in the same way, thus : — 

1% of 1,000=: 10; 31% of 1,000 = 35. Recitation 
continued and closed with various kinds of problems on 
profit and loss. All explained, and solved mentally. 

Frequently pupils are led to write the fewest possible 
Short figures on the slate or blackboard in solving 

Processes. quite difficult problems. The following exer- 
cise, heard in the practice department of a normal school 
in Dresden will illustrate this practice. The mistakes 
made in this class, and in other classes where similar 



ARITHMETIC 1 65 

work was attempted, made me doubt its practical value, 
whatever may be said in its favor as mental discipline. 

The problems were placed upon the board, and one 
pupil at a time was asked to perform the problem, while 
the others followed and made corrections : 

From 87.043 take the sum of 3.504; 9.401 ; 6.027. 
The pupil writes 

87-043 
3.504 
9.401 
6.027 



68. Ill Answer. 

and said 7, 8, 12, and 1 (emphasizing and placing the 

figures under the first column) makes 13 thousandths; 

2, 3, and 1 makes 4 hundredths ; 4, 9, and 1 makes 10 

tenths ; 6, 7, 16, 19, and 8 makes 27 ; 2 and 6 makes 8. 
Answer. — 68.11 1. 

66.2 X 2.19 placed on the blackboard. 

66.2 X 2.19 

66.200 

912 



144.978 Answer. 

Performed and explained as follows : — 
Result to give thousandths. 2 tenths X 9 hun- 
dredths ; place 9 under tenths. Hundredths by tenths 
give thousandths ; place i tenth under hundredths. 
Thousandths by whole ones give thousandths ; place 2 
under thousandths. Multiply 19 X 2 = 18. Put down 



l66 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

8 thousandths, saving i hundredth to be added. 9X6 
= 54 hundredths + i hundredth ==55 hundredths, i X 
2 2r= hundredths + 55 hundredths = 57 hundredths. 
Put down 7 hundredths, saving 5 tenths to be added. 
g X 6 — S4 tenths + 5 tenths = 59 tenths. 1x6 = 6 
tenths + 59 tenths = 65 tenths. 2X2 = 4 tenths + 
65 tenths = 69 tenths. Put down 9 tenths, saving 6 
whole ones to be added, i X 6=^6 + 6 z=z 12. 2X6 
= 12 +12:= 24. Put down 4, saving 2 tens to be 
added. 2x6=12 + 2= 14 tens. Put down 4 tens 
and I hundred. Answer: 144.978. 

A third problem was given, to which an approximate 
answer was sought ; i. e., an answer to three places of 
decimals. The problem was 67.34 X 9.823,789 Marks. 
The pupil said : Units and thousandths give thou- 
sandths. Place 9 under thousandths. For the same 
reason 8 under 4, 2 under 3, 3 under 7, 7 under 6. 
Written on the board as follows : — 

67.340 
73.289 



(7 X 6) + (3 X 7) + (2 X 3) + (8 X 4) = loi. Place i. 
(3 X 6) + (2 X 7) + (8 X 3) + (9 X 4) + 10 = 192. 
Place 2. (2 X 6) + (8 X 7) + (9 X 3) + 10 = 105. 
Place 5. (8 X 6) + (9 X 7) + 10 = 121. Place i. 
9 X 6 + 12 = 66. Place 66. Answer. — 661.^21. Only 
one and two-tenths Pfennigs (1 of a cent) less than the 



ARITHMETIC 16/ 

correct answer, or the answer obtained by performing 
the problem in full. 

Other similar problems were performed in the same 
mechanical but rapid manner. 

Multiplying by factors also is sometimes seen in 
middle and higher grades. Thus there is placed upon 
the board : 45 X i8 = 45 (20 — 2) = 

The pupils solve the problem mentally 20 X 45 = 900. 
2 X 45 = 90. 900 — 90 == 810. 

This suggests good mental work, and a great saving 
of time. 

In the practice department of the Weimar Normal 
School I found cards posted in the various rooms giving 
'* pattern " measures of various kinds. The j^eiative 
distance between two given points was set Measures. 
at 10 metres ; between two others at 25 m. ; between 
two others at 100 m. The distance from the railroad 
station to given points within ten or twelve miles was 
given. Again the square contents of the floor of a 
given room was given as almost 50 q. m., and of another 
as about 100 q. m., and so on to, 1,300 q. m. In cubic 
measure the contents of the various solids and rooms 
was stated. The teachers informed me that these 
measures were constantly used as standards of com- 
parison. It is noticeable that the importance of 
placing the statements in all of the rooms was recog- 
nized. 

In visiting classes in arithmetic, I was frequently 



l68 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Struck with the frequency of reviews which appeared 
P ^^ to be very well known to the pupils. At 
Systematic f^j-st I thought that it was on account of my 

Reviews. '' 

presence, and that teachers were anxious to 
show what their pupils knew. But later I came to 
believe that it was partly for the sake of impressing 
upon the pupils a certain order of procedure which 
would be of service in subsequent work. This might 
not have been in the minds of teachers, but I saw, or 
thought I saw, a certain positive value in the methodi- 
cal reviews which were made. Another use of fre- 
quent reviews, doubtless, was in the minds of teachers, 
and that was thoroughness. Of the importance of 
frequent repetition as a means of securing thorough- 
ness there can be no doubt, but to secure thoroughness 
in accuracy and rapidity of computations it would not 
seem necessary to repeat constantly the various steps 
of previous processes, especially when those steps are 
familiar. 

Still another object of the particular form of reviews 
which I heard, was to lead up by orderly steps to the 
subject to be presented, or to a lesson from the book, 
so as to have the entire subject or process appear 
together. To show what I mean, I will transcribe a 
few notes taken of the first recitation which I heard in 
arithmetic, It was a second year class of girls, con- 
ducted by a man who is the author of a popular arith- 
metic. An illustration of the same thing will be seen 
in notes of other lessons. 



ARITHMETIC 1 69 

The teacher goes to the numeral frame and asks 
questions as he moves the balls into position. 
In 10 there are how many tens ? 

(( 20 ^' " " '^ *' 

<< ^Q (( (( (( (( (< 

(( Of~^ iC (( (t (( it 

Then the same and similar questions are asked 
without the use of balls. 

The same course is pursued in asking the following 
sets of questions, first with, and afterwards without, 
the objects ; viz. : — 

1. How many tens and units in 15? in 26 ? in 34 ? 
in 56? etc. 

2. 10 less 4 } 60 less 4 } 40 less 4 ? 50 less 4 ? etc. 

3. 8 + 4 .? 18 + 4 .? 48 + 4 .? 68 + 4 ? 38 + 4 ? etc. 

4. 4+10? 34+10? 54+10.? 34 + 20.? 44 + 20.? 
64 + 20 .? 10 + 40 1 30 + 40 .? etc. 

5. 4+16.? 24+16.? 34+16.? 54+16? 64+16? 
etc. 

6. 47 + 20 ? 47 + 23 ? 66 + 30 ? 66 ^- 34 ? 34 + 30 ? 

34 + 36 ? 

7. I 5 + 20 ? 15+23? 26 + 20 ? 26+22 ? 42 + 30 ? 

42 + 33 ? 63 + 20 ? 63 + 28 ? etc. 

Answers are given in entire sentences by pupils one 
at a time, the others attending and indicating by show 
of hands that they know the answer. When a pupil 
does not understand the problem or does not answer 
promptly, the teacher, using the numeral frame, goes 



I/O • SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

through the process beginning with simple combina- 
tions. Thus in the problem 48 + 34 ? the teacher says, 
48 + 30 ? How many more than 30 is 34 ? Then how 
many are 48 + 34 ? 

The teacher is very particular that pupils attend ; is 
stern and even cross at times ; at times gentle, saying, 
*'my dear child," and when an answer is given promptly, 
** good, my child ! " "Very well my dear !" The teacher 
says that combinations to 100 are the work of the first 
year ; yet the pupils do not know them thoroughly in 
this grade. 

The courses of study provide that mental and written 
work be carried on together. As a rule far more is 
Mental done in Germany without the aid of figures 

^°^^' than in our schools, especially in making 

difficult combinations. Very little of analysis and 
" explanation " is taught in the lower grades, the work 
there being largely with abstract numbers. 

Short processes with few figures characterize much 
of the work in the middle and higher grades. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION I /I 



CHAPTER XII 

MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS O^ INSTRUCTION 

Drawing is made obligatory in all of the public ele- 
mentary schools, and in all or some classes of the high 
schools. There are some special teachers of drawing 
in the private and higher schools, and a few in the 
graded elementary schools ; but generally the regular 
teachers are expected to carry on the work alone. 

While instruction in drawing is general, and while 
there is great skill displayed in teaching by special and 
regular teachers, there seems to be a surprising differ- 
ence of opinion in respect both to the ends to be 
reached and to the means employed. 

To Americans who are accustomed to attach great 
importance to the use of objects in connection with 
drawing, and who see how extensively objects are used 
by German teachers in teaching other subjects, the 
limited extent to which the teaching of drawing from 
objects is carried on in all the lower grades is a matter 
of great surprise. So far as I could discover, there are 
comparatively few schools in which, apart from geogra- 



1/2 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

phy and nature lessons, objects are used as models for 
drawing in any grade below the seventh. 

Drawing by means of squares or '* net lines," and 
even from flat copy, finds much favor in a large number 
of schools. Indeed, a recent order from the govern- 
ment obliges all teachers of Prussia to follow the for- 
mer plan. An order which went into effect in 1888 
makes the following provisions ^ for graded people's 
schools : — 

In the second and third years the pupils shall be 
brought to comprehend correctly and to draw such 
plain figures as fit in a square of net lines, to com- 
plete partly outlined symmetrical figures, to draw from 
memory simple forms, and to change given drawings. 
The instruction includes the drawing of straight lines 
in different positions, and drawing from flat copies, 
polygons, and stars, whose constituent parts in respect 
to situation, form, and size have been talked about. All 
forms, wholly or in part, are to be placed upon the 
blackboard by the teacher, or orally described. The 
pupils are to draw in books having blue squares of net 
lines one centimetre wide. Practice with net lines 
ceases at the end of the third year. In the fourth, 
fifth, and sixth school year free-hand drawing of plain 
figures is carried on. The instruction during these 
years includes : — 

I. Rectilineal figures which fit in the square. 

1 From Sander's Lexikon der Padagogik. Art. Zeichemmterricht, 



DRAWING 173 

2. Forms based upon the octagon, hexagon, and 
dodecagon. 

3. Forms bounded by straight and curved lines. 

4. Curvilinear ornamental forms. 

Points for assistance in construction are allowed at 
first, but are not used throughout the course. In the 
seventh and eighth school years the work consists 
of free-hand drawing of objects. The instruction in 
this part of the course begins with simple geometrical 
figures, continuing with more and more complex forms, 
until the boundary lines of common articles of furni- 
ture, etc., are drawn, and representations in full are 
given of plaster of Paris models. The instruction in 
the last two or three years of the course is largely 
with individual pupils. 

The plan outlined above is based upon the system of 
Stuhlmann, who has many followers throughout Ger- 
many. There are, however, many teachers who object 
strongly to beginning formal instruction so early, and to 
the use of squares and net lines in drawing. The latter 
objection is sustained by physicians on account of the 
injurious effects of the fine lines upon the eyes. 

One of the foremost opponents of Stuhlmann's system 
is Flinzer of Leipsic, who would begin the instruction of 
drawing with children of ten years of age. Proceeding 
from the square, vertical, horizontal, and oblique lines 
are taught : these are followed by the drawing of regu- 
lar triangles, hexagons, and octagons, the circle, other 



1/4 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

polygons, and ellipses in the order named. These 
forms serve as a foundation for ornamental forms, the 
drawing of which follows. The latter part of the ele- 
mentary school course is given to drawing from models, 
and teaching perspective, light and shade. 

Whatever the followers of Flinzer may accomplish in 
the elementary schools, certainly his own success in the 
Real gymnasium of Leipsic is unquestioned. The work 
of his pupils in drawing from models as I saw it was 
certainly the best work of the kind I had ever seen. 

In most courses of study the teachers are enjoined to 
connect the drawing with geometry, and in girls' schools 
with sewing, by drawing patterns, etc. In many schools 
I saw an effort made to connect drawing with all sub- 
jects of study, particularly with the nature lessons in 
which the objects that the pupils had observed were 
represented. Drawings of simple machines, and appa- 
ratus used in experiments connected with the lessons 
in elementary science, are quite frequently seen in the 
composition-book, as illustrations of what is described. 

Manual Training. 

Most, if not all, of the states now require sewing to 
be taught in the elementary public schools. It is also 
Hand-work taught in some of the private and continuation 
for Girls. schools. Custom varies somewhat as to the 
time at which sewing is begun. In Saxony^ it is begun 

1 Lehrplan Sack sen, p. Ii8. 



MANUAL TRAINING 1 75 

in the fifth school year and continued in weekly lessons 
of two hours each throughout the rest of the course, or 
for four years. In the course provision is made for knit- 
ting, plain sewing, patching, darning, and, whenever pos- 
sible, for cutting garments to measure. All instruction 
is given in classes, and the pupils are furnished the 
same material and work. 

In Prussia no fancy sewing is attempted in the ele- 
mentary schools, and materials for repairing and making 
articles of clothing are brought from home. Local 
authorities may provide for instruction in the use of the 
sewing-machine. 

Quite an essential feature of the work done in higher 
grades is the drawing of patterns for stitching and em- 
broidery. 

Special teachers are employed generally to teach this 
branch of instruction, although a large proportion of 
them are not certificated teachers. Many of them, 
especially in rural districts, are wives of the regular 
teachers, and receive a very meagre salary for their 
services. 

There is little manual instruction for boys in regu- 
larly established public and private schools. In 1888 
only twelve schools were reported as pro- uand-Work 
viding for manual training in their courses fo^Boys. 
of study, although there were at that time over one 
hundred special industrial schools reported, which had 
some connection with public or private institutions. 



Ij6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

Twelve of the two hundred normal schools had in 1888 
introduced manual training, and very many asylums for 
abnormal children have shops connected with them.^ 

Singing. 

As would be expected in so musical a country as 
Germany, singing holds a prominent place in the pro- 
grammes of all grades of schools, and is most carefully 
and thoroughly taught. 

The ends sought in teaching singing, as given in 
several courses of study, are to sing with ease church 
U^jjg chorals and the national songs. Incidental 

Sought. |.Q ^j^jg -g ^Yi^ cultivation of a musical ear and 

taste, which may be a foundation for advanced study 

and practice. 

As a rule there are no special teachers of singing in 

the elementary people's schools, the instruction in that 

branch being carried on by the regular 
Teachers. 

teachers. Sometimes a regular teacher of a 

large graded school is given charge of the singing in 

several rooms. 

The use of some musical instrument — organ, violin, 

or piano — is thought necessary to the best 

Musical work in singing in all grades. I visited 

Instrument. 

few schools where one or the other of these 

instruments was not used in the singing-lesson. 

1 For a brief statement of the kind of work done in special trade and manual- 
training schools see page 6i. 



SINGING 177 

There is not so much singing by note in the lower 
grades as in corresponding grades of our city schools, 

more time being given in the beginning of 

4.U ^ • • T_ ^ Singing, 

the course to smgmg by rote common songs. 

From two to four or more years is designated in the 
various courses of study as the time to be given to sing- 
ing by ear before singing by note is begun. In some 
schools figures are used before notes and as a kind of 
preparation for the use of them. Yet there is strong 
opposition in some places to the use of figures, mainly 
because their use is unnecessary. 

More singing in unison is observed in the elementary 
schools than in similar schools of our country. In the 
Course of Study for the Schools of Sax- p^j.^_ 
ony, it is stated that during the first four ^^°^^°ff- 
years only unison singing is required. Yet teachers 
evidently are not prohibited from teaching some pieces 
in two parts, judging from the singing which I heard in 
the lower grades. In the directions accompanying the 
above-named course, it is recommended that the chorals 
be sung in unison, and that the national songs, when- 
ever possible, be sung in two parts. Three-part sing- 
ing is recommended for the higher classes when the 
circumstances are favorable. 

In ungraded schools part-singing is not generally 
taught. In the Prussian partially graded schools the 
course provides that singing be in unison, although 
part-singing is not prohibited in the advanced division. 



1/8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

While the requirements of the lower grades, m 
respect to note and part singing, seem less severel 
than those of corresponding: grades in this 

Singing in i o o 

Higher country, the singing of the pupils of the 

higher grades, in both of these respects, is 
quite as good as any of our schools can show. I 
remember well several lessons in which three parts by 
note were most admirably taken. One was an exhibi- 
tion of the skill of boys, in a school connected with 
an orphan asylum. It was the singing of a long sacred 
piece of music which had been taught them, and in 
sweetness of expression, purity of tones, and distinct- 
ness of articulation, few professional singers could 
surpass. 

Another class in a people's school of Berlin showed 
great facility in reading a new piece written in three 
parts, by the teacher, upon the blackboard. The teacher 
explained as he wrote each part, the pupils looking 
intently at the work. In this, as in other singing 
exercises, I noticed that every pupil was expected to 
sing. The teacher went among the pupils, and was 
very severe whenever he detected an error. Individual 
pupils were called upon, and trained in opening the 
mouth, etc. Imitation of the teacher was encouraged 
from time to time, and for a change and rest the pupils 
were asked at frequent intervals to stand up and sit 
down promptly a few times. 

One marked characteristic of the singing in all 



PHYSICAL TRAINING 



179 



grades is the sweetness and purity of tones. In the 
lower o^rades soft and low tones are con- „ ^ , , 

° Soft and Low 

stantly exacted. Loudness of tones is re- "^o^^^. 

pressed in various ways. In one first grade school I 

found the teacher beating the time of a rote song, and 

whispering as he beat. His whispered directions were 

apparently expected to be heard by the pupils. In 

other schools lower tones were demanded by the 

teachers' hissing, and in others by earnest exclamations. 

In the lower grades I noticed that singing was 

brought into connection with other studies, especially 

with the observation lessons and religious 

Connection 

instruction. The course of study in Prussia with other 

, , . , , . . Studies. 

expressly states that, m the lower grades it 
will not be well to have the pupils sing an entire hour, 
but to use for singing a small portion of the time 
allotted to other subjects. The same course mentions 
the use of singing for beginning and closing the session, 
and also for accompanying the gymnastic exercises. 

• Physical Training. 

Systematic instruction in gymnastics is made obliga- 
tory in the schools of nearly every State. In each 
graded school of cities and large towns there is gener- 
ally a room well fitted-up with apparatus, and devoted 
exclusively to physical exercises. The pupils of each 
grade or room assemble for exercise in this room at 
least twice a week, each lesson lasting about fifty 



l80 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

I 

minutes. In summer the school-yard is used for some 
of the exercises, such as marching, free gymnastics, etc. 

There are special teachers of gymnastics, but the 
custom is very general for each regular teacher to con- 
duct the physical exercises of his own class. But 
whether the exercises are conducted by special or regu- 
lar teachers, there is an evident system in them all, 
planned by experts whose object is to proceed from 
the simplest movements to movements more and more 
difficult, with the view of developing strength and 
healthfulness of the body. 

In the free gymnastics there is a little of what is 
called play; but generally the exercises are rigidly 
severe, with no elements of attraction to children ex- 
cept the natural pleasure derived from bodily move- 
ments, and an element of competition attending them. 

Religions I?istructio?i. 

Religious instruction is given in all schools, both pub- 
lic and private, and, as a rule, is given by the regular 
teachers, although clergymen are appointed by the gov- 
ernment to teach in some of the higher grades and in 
schools where special instruction is needed. The reli- 
gious belief of a plurality of the parents determines the 
character of the teaching — whether Protestant, Roman 
Catholic, or Jewish. In some sections twelve or more 
pupils of the minority may demand special instruction, 
different from what the plurality receive. 



RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION l8l 

This instruction is given either by special teachers in 
the school where the pupils are who desire the special 
astruction, or the pupils may go to another school to 
eceive the desired instruction. 

The various courses of study make specific provision 
for instruction according to Protestant and Roman 
Catholic faiths, although only slight differences are ob- 
servable. There is in both courses provision for learn- 
ing Bible stories, Bible history, explanations of the 
Bible and book of worship, and the catechism. The 
memorizing of passages from the Bible and book of 
worship, and the singing of hymns and chorals, also con- 
stitute a part of the religious instruction. 

When it is considered that instruction is given from 
two to four hours a week in all grades throughout the 
entire course, the large amount of work accomplished 
is not wondered at. At the end of an eight years' 
course of the people's elementary school, the children 
not only know the principal events recorded in the Old 
and New Testaments, but are able to recite from mem- 
ry much of their contents. They are familiar also 
with the principal events of church history, and are ac- 
quainted with the doctrines of their faith as contained 
in an extended catechism. 

In regard to the character of the teaching of this 
branch of instruction, little fault can be found with it 
as an intellectual exercise. In method, and generally 
in substance, the lessons are praiseworthy, and, so far as 



1 82 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

my observation goes, there is little of what maybe called 
sectarianism in the teaching. Yet I could but feel as I 
heard these lessons that the Bible was brought down 
in some degree to the level of other subjects of instruc- 
tion, and that there was wanting in consequence the in- 
culcation of reverence for sacred things. Possibly the 
close contiguity in time and place of secular and religious 
subjects may have had. its effect in producing the im- 
pression it did, and possibly the impression was a correct 
one for the same reason. I noticed that the danger of 
diversion to secular subjects was avoided, somewhat, in 
some schools by placing religious instruction first upon 
the day's programme. 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 1 83 



CHAPTER XIII 

THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 

Some of the most interesting work which I saw was 
in schools taught by the followers of Herbart. The 
Herbartians, as they are called, are very zealous in the 
study of principles, and equally zealous in the applica- 
tion of them in their schools. These schools are 
mainly in Saxony and Southern Germany, and, although 
they are comparatively few in number, their influence is 
felt throughout the empire. 

The interest in Herbartian philosophy has not mate- 
rially increased within the past twenty or thirty years, 
vet it is still earnestly manifested, either in 

•^ Interest in 

opposition or in favor, among teachers of all Herbartian 

, . 1 • -1 Philosophy. 

grades. In teachers meetmgs and m the 
University lecture-room, the discussion is carried on, 
and from the character of the opposition to the claims 
of Herbart's followers, one is attracted to a study of 
their theories and practice. This, at least, was one of 
my reasons for investigating their methods. 

As these methods are in some respects unique, and 
as considerable interest has been awakened in them in 
this country, I will give a brief sketch of their char- 



184 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

acteristic features together with some illustrative 

exercises.^ 

The chief end of education according to this 

system is the cultivation of a religious moral charac- 

r, J X...J ter. This end is reached by instruction 
End of Educa- •' 

tion. {Unterricht) y government {Regienmg), and 

training (Zticht). 

All instruction should be educational, and is defined 
, , ,. as that part of education which adds to and 

Instruction ^ 

defined. serves to complete the influence of environ- 

ment and experience. 

The cultivation of character is cultivation of the 
will ; the educational worth of instruction, therefore, 
depends upon the influence it has in relation to the 
will. Inasmuch as the character of the will depends 
upon the thoughts, much attention is given to these — 
first in widening their circle, and secondly in helping 
to make them of the right kind. Instruction in these 
Interest respects is dependent upon the interest 
awakened. The interest to be effective 
must be harmonious and many-sided. The word inter- 
est is used in a double sense. Interest should be 
awakened, by which pupils may more easily learn the 
subjects of instruction. This is called receptive inter- 
est. Necessary as this interest may be to instruction, 

1 The views contained in this sketch are drawn chiefly from Vorschule der 
Pddagogik Herbarts von Chr. Ufer and Theorie und Praxis des Volksschul- 
unterrichts von Rem, Picket und Scheller, 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 1 85 

there must be an interest which will excite the emo- 
tions and strengthen the will. This is called a ^^far- 
following'' interest which is peculiar to the Herbartian 
philosophy. It is an interest which is not merely a 
means to an end, but is an end in itself. ** He has an 
interest in a thing who holds fast to something known, 
and seeks to extend it." ^ Perhaps our word mspira- 
tion, used in the sense of incitement to greater en- 
deavor in the pursuit of knowledge, expresses the kind 
of interest which is here demanded. 

Again, the instruction should awaken not merely an 
indirect interest, — an interest gained by desire for re- 
wards either near or remote, — but a direct interest in 
the subjects themselves, with no incentives except a 
desire of knowing. 

This direct or immediate interest should be extended 
— ''many-sided'' — so as to be a protection against 
moral weakness, which comes from a one-sided inter- 
est — such as an interest in one's business as the only 
end in life. 

The many-sided interests are those which are derived 
from knowledge, and those which are derived from asso- 
ciation with others. Of the first kind are (i) an em- 
pirical interest, or an interest in the variegated and 
manifold surroundings. (2) A speculative interest, or 
an interest in the causes of certain phenomena and 
events. (3) An aesthetic interest, or an interest 

1 Herbart— Umriss Pad. Vorl. § 62 (X S. 211). 



1 86 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

which is shown in the relations of what is seen. This 
is manifest in a love of the beautiful in art or nature. 

The various kinds of interests, as here defined, are to 
be awakened both by a right choice and arrangement of 
the subjects of instruction, and by correct methods of 
their presentation. 

Instruction, as has been said, has for its object the 

supplementing of what is gained from environment and 

experience. Knowledge of the outer world is gained 

from environment, and reflections concerning 

Sources of . . 

Subjects of men arise from experience. Nature and 
History, taken in a wide sense, are therefore 

the two chief sources from which subjects of instruction 

are selected. 

Since character is the end of education, matters 

relating to mankind (History, Language, etc.) are espe- 
cially emphasized in the choice of subjects 

Selection and 

Arrangement to be presented ; and since the selection of 

of Subjects. Ill 

subjects depends upon the natural develop- 
ment of the child, which corresponds to the development 
of the human race, there is a grading of instruction 
according to the historical growth of mankind {Cultur- 
historische Shifeji). The disciples of Herbart have 
made an application of these principles in the selection 
and arrangement of subjects by years of school life. 
The following is the arrangement made by Ziller, and is 
quite generally followed in the Herbartian Schools. 
First year, Fairy Tales; Second year, Robinson 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 1 87 

Crusoe ; Third year, The Patriarchs ; Fourth year, 
Judges in Israel ; Fifth year, Kings in Israel ; Sixth 
year, Jesus Christ ; Seventh year. Apostles ; Eighth 
year. Reformation. 

Rein, adopting Ziller's plan as a basis, makes some 
changes as follows : Fourth year, Kings and Judges ; 
Fifth and Sixth years. Life of Jesus. 

The fact that the teaching of religion in the schools 
is demanded in Germany may account in part for the 
character of the subjects here selected as the basis of 
instruction. It is well known, however, that Herbart 
himself, while advocating strongly the cultivation of 
a religious spirit in schools, regarded the direct teach- 
ing of religion as belonging chiefly to the church and 
home. 

Unity, or oneness of thought, is essential to the culti- 
vation of character. There should be, therefore, a bind- 
ing together of the subjects of instruction; 

.... . . Concentration. 

I.e., ideas occasioned by instruction in one 
branch should have some relation to ideas occasioned 
by instruction in other branches. This principle is 
applicable not only to teaching the various subjects 
embraced under the two great departments of knowl- 
edge, but to teaching Language as well. Each subject 
of instruction, whether in knowledge or language, should 
be selected and presented with reference to all others. 
Moreover, a central point of instruction is regarded 
as important, and this central point (or rather cen- 



1 88 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

tral points, for each year's instruction is supposed to 
be a unit) is found in that portion of fable or History 
corresponding to the mental growth of the child to be 
taught. Thus in the first year, Nature study. Arith- 
metic, Reading, Writing, and Singing all depend in some 
way upon the fairy stories which are made the central 
point of instruction during the year. 

The feature of the Herbartian system which is likely 
to interest American teachers most is that known as the 

formal steps of instruction. In the methods 
Formal Steps 

of instruc- of carrying on a recitation whose object is in- 
tion. 

struction, certam steps or stages are given as 
essential to a complete realization of desired ends. 

Rein and many other disciples of Herbart give five 
such steps, as follows : — 

I. Preparation. 2. Presentation (of the new). 3. 
Combination (of new ideas with each other, and of new 
ideas with old ones). 4. Abstraction (binding together 
of ideas). 5. Applicatio7t. 

A statement of the aim or purpose of the recitation 
should first be given ; because such a statement prepares 
the pupils to co-operate with the teacher in his work, 
by removing from their minds irrelevant thoughts, by 
exciting their interest, and by giving them an incentive 
to exert their will. 

Every essentially new topic is called a " methodical 
unity," or a unit to be treated in the method above 
given. The "methodical unity" may be part of a 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 1 89 

given lesson, or it may be one of several related subjects 
which extend through several recitations. 

The following brief explanation of the various steps 
may assist the reader to a clearer idea of their purposes 
and methods. 

1. Preparation. The preparatory step consists of 
bringing into the consciousness of the pupils old and 
familiar ideas which are related to the new ideas about 
to be awakened. New ideas can be apprehended cor- 
rectly only with the help of ideas which are already in 
the mind. If there are no related ideas in the con- 
sciousness of pupils, the occasions of new knowledge 
make little impression, and the instruction is without 
interest. In order to make the reception of new ideas 
easy and sure, it is necessary to explore and analyze the 
pupils* circle of thoughts, so far as they relate to the 
subject to be presented. Moreover, the thoughts thus 
explored, or brought into consciousness, should be 
brought together in order, and stated clearly, that the 
new may be easily distinguished and grasped. All this 
can be accomplished best by an examination of the 
pupils, wherein the answers are given without restraint. 

2. Presentation. When the minds of the pupils are 
prepared for the reception of new ideas, the occasions 
of such ideas will be presented, according to the age of 
the pupil and the subject matter of the instruction. If 
the preparation has been of the right kind the compre- 
hension of new ideas will be sure and easy, and the 



1 90 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

teacher will not find it necessary to do much. When 
the teacher is obliged to "explain" much, it is a sign 
that the preparatory step has not been complete. 

In the presentation of occasions of new ideas the 
following points should be kept in mind. There should 
be such a division of the subject matter to be presented 
as to insure clearness of comprehension, and such a 
repetition of what is presented as to fix the ideas in the 
minds of the pupils. By carefully presenting each part, 
and afterwards uniting the parts so as to make a com- 
plete whole, the pupils, from the strongest to the weak- 
est, are prepared to give clear statements of what they 
clearly comprehend. 

It is important that the subject matter of a method- 
ical unity be presented in an orderly series, and that 
the presentation be continuous from beginning to end, 
without interruption. At the close of the presentation 
all points not fully understood should be made clear. 
Following every new presentation the pupils should put 
together in a series of original statements what has 
been presented. In the middle and higher grades the 
statements may be written as well as oral. Whenever 
it is possible, the presentation of the new should be ac- 
companied by drawing. 

3. Combinatioji. Newly acquired ideas are, in the 
third step, brought together in the consciousness, for 
comparison and combination. This process is neces- 
sary because it unifies and harmonizes the ideas, and 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS IQI 

because by it essential and general notions may be 
formed. 

Especial importance is attached to the separation of 
ideas which help to form the general notion. What has 
been acquired by the pupil in previous instruction, and 
especially what he has acquired from his own experi- 
ence and surroundings, should be brought in relation to 
new ideas, for the purpose of perfecting and fixing 
them in the mind, and also for the purpose of finding 
such common properties as will be most useful in gen- 
eralization. 

4. Abstraction. The purpose of the fourth step is to 
completely separate the general notion from the con- 
crete objects with which it has, up to this point, been 
associated. The process in the accomplishment of this 
purpose is fourfold ; viz. : — 

(i) The separation of ideas from their concrete 
objects. 

(2) The definite expression of the newly formed 
ideas. 

(3) The bringing together in systematic order what 
has already been acquired, and by repetition impressing 
it with the new. 

(4) Fixing the general notions by expression in the 
form of proverbs, rules, etc. 

5. Application. Knowledge and power have, of 
themselves, no value. They have value only when 
they are brought into the service of life, when they are 



192 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

changed into use. Practice, therefore, in the applica- 
tion of what is learned is necessary, and this is the 
function of the last step. The pupils should be led to 
use their ideas in different ways, to pass from particu- 
lars to generals, and from generals to particulars. 
Thus, in reading, religious instruction, etc., examples 
of good and bad conduct may be pointed out by the 
pupils, and a statement drawn from them as to what 
they would have done under similar circumstances. 

In language, examples which come under a certain 
rule may be given, and on the other hand a rule or prin- 
ciple may be given which governs certain cases ; com- 
positions also may be written according to given rules. 
In mathematics there may be an application of given 
rules in the solution of problems. In geography, maps 
may be drawn from memory, indicating what has been 
learned. In history, judgments of the character of 
celebrated people, and of the characteristics of certain 
periods may be given. There may be drawn, also, from 
certain lives and events, lessons applicable to the pupils' 
own lives or time. 

To illustrate the principles above stated, especially 
those in relation to formal steps of instruction, the 
following examples of lessons are given : — 

Fable — First Year. 

" The Wolf and Fox" — The Fox is here made the 
lesson of the day. 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS I93 

Aim : We have already learned something of one of 
the two comrades who went walking together in the 
woods — now we shall learn something of the other one 
— the fox. 

First Step. — What do we know about the wolf ? He 
is a bad creature. What has he done with the little 
geese } What with the little lambs ? We have also 
heard something bad about the fox. What is it .? He 
steals. He is also a bad companion. But he is more 
clever and cunning than the wolf, and is not easily 
caught in his bad deeds. Has any one of you ever 
seen a fox .<* How does he look .? 

Second Step. — {a.) Description of the fox with the 
aid of a picture: He is as large as a middle-sized dog, 
and looks reddish brown. He has a round head with 
pointed nose, ears standing erect, sharp teeth, and 
white throat, a long body with thick hide, a long, bushy 
tail with white end, thin legs, five toes on each foot 
with strong claws. 

ip) Where and how does he live } In a deep cave 
in the woods ; several places to go in and out, and 
inside a wide space. (Drawing shown.) In rainy, cold, 
and very warm weather, the fox stays in his cave, and 
on fine days he lies before the cave in the shade of the 
trees. In the night, and sometimes in the day, he goes 
out to steal. He catches hares, little rabbits, and 
young deer. He steals softly into a barn and gets a 
lamb, a goose, or a hen. He creeps into the garden 



194 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

and eats beans, plums, and grapes He is a real thief 
and murderer. Yet he is good for something ; for he 
kills off the field-mice, and we can use his skin and hair. 
We do not eat his flesh. The hunter shoots the fox. 

Thu'd Step. — {a) In the little stories which you 
heard, what did the fox steal .? ib) Why doesn't the 
farmer catch him and kill him } He is sly and cunning. 
In what way does he appear so } By what wild animals 
is his flesh eaten } By what animals is it not eaten t 

if) Wolf and fox compared : The wolf worse than 
the fox. The wolf tears children and grown people to 
pieces. The fox does not do this. 

Fourth Step. — i . The fox is a sly, cunning animal. 
2. The fox is a thief and murderer. 

Fifth Step. — {a) The fox is a sly, cunning animal. 
How does any one know that .-* ib) What wood and 
field animals does he steal t What house animals does 
he steal } What fruits and vegetables does he like } 
(c.) Name some animals which live underground ! 
Name some which stay on the earth, in the water, 
above the earth ! {d.) What two robber companions 
now have we learned about } Which is the worse of the 
two } Why .-* Which is the more sly and cunning } Is 
it right for the hunters to shoot the wolf and the fox } 

Singing: '' Fuchs, dn hast die Gans gestohlen,'' etc. 

Saying : (to memorize.) ** Wer die Gans gestohlen 
hat,'' etc. 

Drawing : a fox's house. 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS I95 

The Harts Mountains. 

{Lesson/or middle grades, supposed to be given in Eisenach not far from 
the Hartz.) 

Aim : We shall in this lesson learn something more 
about the mountains in which Heinrich I. often 
hunted, and in which a famous saying was made known 
to him after he was made king. What is the saying ? 

First Step. — i. The Hartz was the hunting-ground 
of Heinrich 1. We already know other hunting- 
grounds of counts and kings (others mentioned). 

2. The situation of the Hartz : From the hunting- 
ground of Thuringian Landgraves we can see that of 
the dukes and kings of Saxony. In clear weather we 
can see the Brocken from our hills. 

What is said of that mountain .? What is its size ? 
In what direction does it lie from us } We go along 
the banks of the Werra, Does it lead us to the Hartz } 
We go down the Saale. Does that take us into the 
mountains } 

But another river that we know will lead us into the 
neighborhood of the Hartz — the Unstrut. How near 
the mountains is it ? Drawing on the Blackboard of 
Thuringian Forest with the well-known heights, and 
Eisenach, Werra, Saale. (Other rivers and cities 
indicated on the map.) 

3. Before we point out the situation of the Hartz on 
the map will you tell what you have already heard 
of it } 



196 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

(The children give all the information they have 
heard, and then put together in a continuous narrative 
all that they have said.) 

Second Step. — I. We know now the situation of the 
Hartz. Let us learn something of its extent. (The 
map is placed before the children. Under the guid- 
ance of the teacher the following facts are learned and 
recited.) The Hartz extends in the same direction as 
the Thuringian Forest — from south-east to north-west. 
The latter, however, is much longer (150 km. to no 
km.), and is also, at least in the southern part, much 
wider (30 km. to 52 km. From Eisenach to Wilhelm- 
sthal jYt, km.). The shape of the Hartz district is 
something like that of an ellipse. To the north-west 
it extends nearly to the Seine. To the south-east 
nearly to the Saale. It is not cut off so abruptly on 
either end as on the south-west (Helme Valley), and 
north-east (North German lowland). If we notice the 
railroad we see that it entirely surrounds the district. 
On account of the fact that the boundaries are sharply 
defined, it can be compared to an island. 

II. We shall now learn something of the height of 
this region. (A relief map is placed before the chil- 
dren. By the help of these two maps the following 
statements may be drawn from the pupils.) The 
Hartz forms a single highland which is traversed by 
deep valleys extending in different directions. In its 
entire length it is depressed somewhat from north- 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS I97 

west to south-east. Therefore, the north-western por- 
tion is called the Upper Hartz, the south-eastern 
portion Lower Hartz. The boundary between the two 
parts is not exactly defined. Above the surface of the 
plateau in Upper Hartz there rises a mountain with a 
rounded top. The highest peak is the one we can see 
— the Brocken. It is about 225 m. higher than our 
Inselberg (915 + 225), and three times as high as our 
Wartburg. The plateau from which it rises is called 
Brockenfield. The surface of the plateau and peak is 
covered with masses of rocks of remarkable shapes. 
Many of them are covered with moss and vines, just as 
we saw them on the rocks between Ruhla and Gerber- 
stein. A traveller who goes up from the Lower Hartz 
has the impression that the Brocken is a separate 
mountain chain to which the widely extended Lower 
Hartz seems like a broad footstool. The people who 
live in the Lower Hartz district say, also, when they 
go to the north-western part, that they "go into the 
Hartz." There is another group of granite-covered 
peaks called Ramberg or Victor's Heights. This lies 
between two valleys, and is the highest peak of the 
Lower Hartz, — nearly 600 m. high. The peak lies on 
the northern border, so that the range when seen 
from the north appears to be steeper than when 
seen from the south. 

HL The climate, as we know, depends upon the 
height. It has a rough climate. Why.? Northern 



198 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

situation. North winds. In winter it is very cold 
here, and there is much snow. Yet the snow does not 
remain throughout the year, as it does in the Alps. 

IV. Vegetation. The whole range, from the summit 
to the foot, is covered with vegetation, just as it is in 
the Thuringian Forest. Nowhere, as in the Alps, do 
we find icy wastes ; but only here and there rocks, 
crags, and blocks. In the upper portions there are 
peat-bogs, as we have already found on the Rhone. 
Yet these highlands do not appear like deserts, for 
they are covered with a fine carpet of moss and vines. 
In the cold Upper Hartz the needle-trees prevail, 
while in the Lower Hartz the leaf-trees are most 
abundant. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in 
work connected with the forest. Cattle are raised to 
some extent, but the chief occupation is forestry. 

The principal part of the Hartz consists of gray 
wacke. This is broken through by two great masses 
of granite formation (Brocken, Ramberg). The gray 
wacke is in several places mixed with iron and other 
ores.^ 

V. Structure. Silver was discovered in the Hartz 
Mountains in the second part of the tenth century. 
To this discovery the founding of Klausthal, Zellerfeld, 
and Andreasberg was due. Also Goslar the old Kaiser- 
city derived its early start from the same cause. (Selec- 
tions upon these matters in the reading-book to be read.) 

1 Further studied in the Nature lessons. 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS I99 

VI. Valleys. Granite forms the highest peaks of 
the Hartz, as does the Gerberstein near Ruhla. It is 
also found in the deep valleys for which the Hartz 
is celebrated. (Ocker, Bode, and Selke are named.) 
These valleys serve to assist commerce between the 
mountains and plains. (Commercial towns pointed out 
and named.) The most celebrated water-magazine of 
the Hartz is the high marshes in the Brocken. These 
marshes hold the snow and water ; and for the watering 
of all the neighboring regions, hundreds of streams 
flow from the marshes. When they dry up, as they 
sometimes do in summer, there is a drought. This is 
quite common in the Upper Hartz. (Comparison with 
experience in Eisenach.) 

VII. Inhabitants. The occupations of the people 
are here described in full, including coal-making, 
lumbering, mining, caring for the cattle, followed by 
a description of their social habits and homes, and of 
their worship before and after the day's work. Draw- 
ing of the Hartz district, first on the blackboard, and 
afterwards on the slate. 

Third Step. — A. Putting together of material already 
given. 

1. Comparison of the two parts of the Hartz, — 
Upper and Lower Hartz. Northern and southern 
boundary ; also that of south-west and south-east. 

2. Comparison of the Brocken and Ramberg. 

3. Rivers that flow from the Hartz. Compared as 
to direction, etc. 



200 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

4. Location and name of the cities and towns which 
lie on the border of the mountains, and comparison of 
them with each other as to situation, importance, etc. 
(Sachsa, Goslar, Harzburg, etc.) 

5. Location and comparison of the mountain towns. 
(Klausthal, Zellerfeld, etc.) 

B. Comparison of the Hartz Mountain district with 
the Thuringian Forest and the Rhone district. The 
last two mountain districts are supposed to be known 
to the children. 

1. The situation, extension, and height of the three 
districts, also their highest peaks. 

2. The construction of the three systems. 

3. Rivers and lakes. 

4. Productions, {a) forests, {b) agriculture, (c) mines. 

5. Cities and towns ; commerce. 

6. Climate. 

Fourth Step. — (B, above given in the third step, may 
be called a part of the fourth step.) 

A, Writing in a book in systematic order the head- 
ings of subjects given in the third step. 

B. Drawing of the Hartz from the map in the atlas. 
Fifth Step. — (Following tasks given.) 

1. Make a relief map of the Hartz. 

2. Draw a profile map of the northern part of the 
mountains. 

3. State how we reach the Hartz from Eisenach. 

4. How can one travel through the Hartz, and visit 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 201 

not only the most beautiful points, but also the indus- 
trial districts. 

5. Wherein are the Hartz and Thuringian Forest 
alike ? 

6. Wherein are these districts like the Rhone ? 

7. Prospect from the Brocken. Compare with the 
prospect from the Wartburg. 

8. What cities mark the boundaries of the Hartz ? 

9. Why does the Hartz when seen from the north 
appear to be higher than when seen from the south ? 

10. Speak of the characteristics of the Hartz. 

The Lever. 

First Step. — We have lately spoken about the shop- 
keepers' scales. What are these scales called .■* You 
have perhaps seen a balance whose arms were not 
equal. You have seen carpenters and masons raise a 
heavy weight by means of a crowbar. You have also 
seen a nut-cracker or the shears of an iron-plate 
worker. How are the arms of these shears in compar- 
ison with those of common shears } You may have 
wondered why the arms were so long, or why one 
must press down at the end of the crowbar. We 
will in this lesson try to learn the reason. 

Second Step. — I have here a metre-stick. How is it 
marked } I put the middle of the stick upon this edge 
and you see it balances, or is in equilibrium. What 
have we made of the stick } An equal-armed lever. 



202 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

If I put I GO grammes upon one end, how much weight 
must I put on the other end ? Yes, an equal weight. 
Now I place this stick so that one part measures 
20 cm. and the other 80 cm., that is, one part is four 
times as long as the other. The stick is no longer in 
equilibrium. Why not ? One arm is too long. I 
place a stone upon the shorter arm, and shove it along 
until the stick is in equilibrium. Upon each end of 
the stick I place as before 100 grammes. What hap- 
pens ? The stick is no longer in equilibrium. Where 
is the weight too great } What must I do so that the 
stick will balance ? I must either take away some of 
the weight here, or place more weight there. We will 
try the first way. 50 gr. ; too much. 25 gr. ; that is 
just right, and now there is equilibrium. If I name 
the weight on the shorter arm weight, and the weight 
on the longer arm power, how much power must I use 
to hold the weight in equilibrium ? One-fourth part of 
the weight. And how much now (placing stick differ- 
ently) ? A little more than one-fourth part. What is 
the reason for the difference between power and 
weight ? How much longer is the longer arm than the 
shorter ? Four times as long. How much less than 
the weight is the power } One-fourth as great. Or 
how many times greater than the power is the weight ? 
Four times. 

Third Step. — If I make the longer arm only twice as 
long as the shorter arm how many times less than the 



THE HERBARTIAN SCHOOLS 203 

weight will be the power to produce equilibrium ? 
Twice as small, or half of the weight. We will see if 
that is correct. I have here a stick 60 cm. long, — an 
old ell : I lay it upon the fulcrum so that the shorter 
arm with 100 gr. weight is 20 cm. long, and the longer 
arm is 40 cm. long. We put the 25 gr. again upon the 
longer arm and we see that it is too light. Why ? 
What part of the weight should the power be to bal- 
ance it when the longer arm is four times the length 
of the shorter arm ? Four times. In this case how is 
it, since the longer arm is only twice as long as the 
shorter arm } The power must be half the weight. 
How much, then, of the weight must I take off ? 50 gr. 
Now equilibrium is again established. If this arm 
should be three, six, ten times as long as the other, 
what part of the weight should I have to put on to 
preserve the equilibrium ? 

Fourth Step. — We have seen that {a) if the arms of 
the lever are of equal length the power and weight 
must be the same to maintain an equilibrium, and ip) 
if the arms are of unequal length the power and 
weight are unequal. We have discovered the follow- 
ing law : — 

The longer the arm of a lever is, so much the less 
power must be used to keep in equilibrium a weight 
upon the other arm ; or, more exactly, unequal armed 
levers are in equilibrium when the power is contained 
in the weight as many times as the weight arm is con- 
tained in the power arm. 



I 



204 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

(The pupils write out this law in a book with a sim- 
ple drawing of the experiment ; also with a drawing of 
iron-plate shears, and of a crowbar in position for rais-, 
ing a weight.) 

Fi/t/i Step. — Now we will again recall how the mason 
raises a heavy stone. What does he put under the 
crowbar ? Where does he put the stone ? At what 
end does he take hold of the bar ? If this end is ten 
times as long as the other, how much more power does 
he exert in moving the stone than if he did not use the 
lever ? Give the reason why the iron-plate shears 
have such long arms and such short blades, while paper 
shears have short arms and long blades ? If anything 
hard is to be cut by the shears where ought it to be 
placed ? Near to the connecting pin. Why ? What 
part of the pump-handle is the longer ? Why has the 
clawhammer such short claws and such long arms ? 
Application to scales for weighing. 



REFORMS 205 



CHAPTER XIV 

REFORMS 

Although the educational system of Germany in 
many respects has remained unchanged for two cen- 
turies, it must not be supposed that great changes have 
not been made recently, or that no important reforms 
are contemplated at the present time. A brief review 
of some of the past and proposed changes, in respect 
both to school organization and to methods of instruc- 
tion, may be interesting to teachers, and may throw 
some light upon certain proposed reforms in America. 

Formerly the school inspectors, especially in the 

country, were nearly all clergymen. This plan worked 

an injury in two ways : first, in not giving 

Supervision. 

the schools the benefit of skilled supervision 
by men who could give their full time to the work ; and 
secondly, in placing the schools too closely under the 
direction of the church. Since 1872, when a law was 
promulgated asserting the predominant rights of the 
state in the control of the schools, a great change has 
been effected in the work and personality of the super- 
visors or inspectors. Everywhere the demand is heard 
for professional supervision. Superintendence of the 



206 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

schools, and the appointment of men who give their full 
time to the work of supervision is rapidly extending 
thoughout the .empire. 

There is considerable controversy over the relations 
which exist between the church and the school. A de- 
Eeiations niand is made on the one hand for an entire 
Chur^h\nd separation of the two institutions, and on 
School. the other hand for that kind and degree of 

control which the church formerly held over the 
schools. In Prussia the clerical party is strenuously 
endeavoring to abrogate the decrees of separation 
made by Minister Falk twenty years ago, some even 
going so far as to urge that the church have entire 
charge of the elementary education of children. If the 
progress of events during the past century is any cri- 
terion of the future, it would seem that the entire 
assumption of the charge of the schools by the state or 
municipal governments is only a matter of time. 

While increased powers have been given to local 

governments in certain directions, the state holds 

firmly to its prerogative of determining the 
Lessening 

ofLocai quality and kind of instruction that shall be 

Powers. . . 

given m the schools. It was early seen that 
the appointment of teachers could not be left safely to 
local boards, as was done in Wurtemberg and other 
states ; and the powers which the local boards once held 
in this regard were transferred to the general state 
governments. The fixing of teachers' salaries, also, is 



REFORMS 207 

not in the hands of town governments as was formerly 
the case. It was found that where towns had control of 
appointments and compensation of teachers, the schools 
were frequently put in charge of the lowest bidder. 
Great progress was made in the direction of good teach- 
ing when both of these prerogatives were placed in the 
hands of the state. 

The present high professional requirements ^ for 
teachers of the elementary schools in Prussia were 
made in 1872. Since then the number of Elementary 
normal schools has increased from 74 to 115, ^^^^^^^s* 
and the number of normal-school pupils has nearly 
doubled. As the result of this reform, practically all 
the teachers of the lower schools are professionally 
trained men and women. 

For three centuries pedagogical lectureships and 
seminaries have been connected with the universities. 
Within the past hundred years these means Teachers of 
of preparing teachers of secondary schools High Schools, 
for their work have proved inadequate, and various 
attempts have been made to supply the want of neces- 
sary practice. Gedike in 1787, and Herbart in 1809, 
founded seminaries for practice ; and since then many 
institutions of the same kind have been established, 
mainly in connection with universities. Prussia, in 
1826, demanded a year of practice {Probejahr), in 
addition to the state examination, for all high school 

1 See Page 7. 



208 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

candidates. Gradually this requirement extended to 
the neighboring states, until in 1890 it was quite 
general throughout Germany. In Saxony the ques- 
tion how candidates for the position of teacher in 
high schools may secure the necessary practice has 
received the attention of schoolmen for several years. 
Some say it is best for such candidates to attend the 
normal schools for elementary school-teachers. Others 
favor the plan of establishing seminaries in connection 
with existing high schools. Meanwhile the Prussian 
Government has ordered the establishment of semi- 
naries for practice in every province ^ — a requirement 
which will be likely to extend to other states. 

Within a few years conferences of many kinds have 

been held in every part of the empire for the purpose 

of considering questions of school reform. 

Conference 

on School Perhaps the most important of these con- 
ferences was the one called by the Govern- 
ment of Prussia to meet in Berlin in December, 1890. 
It consisted of forty-four men — representing various 
educational interests, many of them being in active 
service in schools or universities. The most important 
conclusions of the conference were as follows : — 

I. Only two kinds of public schools to exist, — the 
gymnasia and non-classical schools {Oberrealscktden and 
/where Burgerschtilen). A common school for these 
two kinds of schools is considered undesirable. 

1 See page lo. 



REFORMS 



209 



2. A reduction of the time hitherto devoted to Latin 
and Greek. The Latin composition to be dropped. 
Greater emphasis to be put upon the German language 
and upon German history. 

3. More hours for study in school, and less home 
study. 

4. A thorough professional training for all classes of 
teachers. 

5. Greater attention to be given to bodily exercise 
and hygiene. 

6. Drawing to be increased in the gymnasia, and 
English to be made obligatory whenever it is possible. 

7. The placing of the Realschideji and Gymnasien 
on a more equal footing in respect to entrance upon 
university and technical high-school courses. 

All of the above recommendations may not be carried 
into effect, but their promulgation has already been 
followed by discussions which must result in important 
changes. All the subjects embraced in the conclusions 
are being warmly discussed in associations of teachers, 
and in the public press. Petitions and counter peti- 
tions are being forwarded to the government, many of 
which refer to the relative value of classical and non- 
classical learning. 

One of the recommendations, certainly, it will be 
difficult to carry into effect, — that relating to the 
abolition of the Realgymnasiwn. This change would 
materially affect nearly three hundred towns of Prussia 



2IO SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

which have only one high school. In these towns the 
proposed reform threatens the existence of the Real- 
gymnasmrn, Progymnasium. There is already wide- 
spread dissent from the decision of the council in this 
respect, and some modification of it will doubtless be 
made by the government. 

The recommendations of the Berlin Conference, 
above alluded to, affect high schools mainly. But re- 
forms in the elementary school system are 

Elementary •' "^ 

School also being discussed vigorously in various 

Beform. 

quarters. What teachers themselves think 
in regard to such reforms is shown by the vote of the 
Berlin Teachers' Congress in its session of 1890, affirm- 
ing that the great defects of the elementary school 
system are, (i) too many pupils to a teacher, (2) too 
many subjects of instruction, (3) supervision by non- 
professional inspectors, (4) insufficient remuneration of 
teachers, (5) indefinite regulations respecting the main- 
tenance of discipline.^ 

Some complaint is made of the present inconvenient 
and irregular times of school terms and vacations. In 
School Terms Bavaria the school year for the Realgym- 
and Vacations. ^^^^/^^^ ^^s changed in 1890, so as to begin 

the school year Sept. 10, and end it July 14. It is 
thought that this change will extend eventually to all 
high schools, and perhaps to all schools throughout 
the empire. 

1 London Journal of Education, August, 1890, p. 418. 



REFORMS : 211 

No observer of the schools or of the life of the peo- 
ple in Germany can fail to note the great changes that 
are being made in the German language, both 

Changes in 

spoken and written. The schools and public the German 

Languaere. 

press are united m a strong effort to banish 
from the language all foreign words, or words that are 
not of a distinctly Germanic origin. Societies also are 
being formed in all parts of Germany whose object is 
to purge the language of foreign idioms and words. As 
a consequence, newly coined German words are gradu- 
ally taking the place of words which are foreign in form 
and origin. 

Great efforts have been made recently to check the 
alarming increase of near-sightedness. Statistics show 
that more than half of the students of the uear-Sighted- 
upper classes of the high schools are near- "®^'' 
sighted. The attention of school authorities has been 
called to the various causes of near-sightedness, and in 
some cases rules have been made looking to their 
removal. Poorly lighted rooms, excessive amount of 
home study, and German printed text-books are the chief 
causes alleged of near-sightedness. The suspension 
from office of Bismarck, who resolutely opposed chan- 
ging the German text to Latin text, opens the way to 
the removal of one of these causes. 

For the purpose of making the efforts of reformers 
more effective, societies have been organized whose 
purposes vary to a considerable degree. There are 



212 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

societies whose aim is simply to incorporate new 
branches of instruction in the course of studies ; there 
Societies for ^^e Other societies whose object is, inagen- 
German^°^°^ eral way, to improve the schools under their 
Schools. present form of organization ; and there are 
societies which advocate a radical reform in the entire 
system of schools, casting aside the traditions which 
have held the schools within certain lines during the 
past century. Two societies of the latter kind were 
formed in Berlin in 1889, under the leadership of strong 
men, and we may naturally expect to see some results 
of their efforts. The reforms advocated by one of 
these societies at a meeting in 1889,^ were : (i) Placing 
of all high schools upon the same footing. (2) Making 
German the central point of instruction. (3) Better 
school hygiene and greater care for the physical devel- 
opment of youth. (4) Equal privileges for Realschulen 
and Gym7iasieit as preliminary conditions for a thorough 
school reform. (5) Better preparation of teachers. 
(6) Simplification of examinations. (7) Greater sharing 
of the duties and rights of teachers on the part of par- 
ents. (8) Uniting of all movements in school reform. 
(9) An independent educational administration under 
the guidance of professional men. (10) A law relating 
to instruction. (This is in Prussia, where there is no 
general school law.) 

Perhaps the most striking changes that have been 

1 Reported in Pad. Jahresbericht^ 1889, P- 535- 



REFORMS 213 

advocated by any educator of good repute are con- 
tained in a book written by Dr. Gorins:.^ 

•' ^ The new 

The prominence of the author and the in- German 

fluence of the society ^ which he represents 

will doubtless induce many people to read the book. 

The fact that the Cultusminister of Prussia, Dr. von 
Gossler, has permitted the book to be dedicated to him 
will not lessen its influence among Germans. 

The following brief extracts will give the reader a 
general idea of the author's views. 

In the " New German School " there are to be three 
grades or courses. The elementary school course is to 
extend from the age of six to fourteen years, and is to 
give a general preparation for the duties of life. The 
second course is to extend from the age of fourteen to 
sixteen years, and is intended to be a preparation for 
military schools, for technical trades, and for business. 
The third course of four years is to prepare for the 
University and Technological School. 

Home tasks are not to be assigned, and written exer- 
cises are to be prepared in the class. 

Corporal punishment is not to be administered in 
school, all misdemeanors being reported to the parents. 

There are to be no public examinations ; but parents 
are to be received as guests at any time. There are to 
be no vacations, excursions of various kinds to take their 
place. 

1 Die neite detdsche Schule, von Dr. H. Goring. Leipzig, 1890. 

2 Der allgemeinc Deutsche Verein fiir Schiilreform. 



214 SCHOOLS QF GERMANY 

Sentiments of Religion, duty, truthfulness, and pat- 
riotism are to be inculcated, not only theoretically, but 
practically in the life of the school. 

Games, gardening, handiwork, gymnastics, and mili- 
tary drill are to have a prominent place, especially after- 
noons, forenoons being given to theoretical subjects of 
instruction. 

In the first year of the elementary course, the time 
for instruction per day is to be limited to one, two, and 
three hours, separated into periods of about twenty-five 
minutes each, with intermissions of ten minutes each 
between the periods. Oral instruction in nature studies 
is to be given during the year, with such other obser- 
vation lessons as will prepare the child for subsequent 
studies. Instruction in reading and writing will begin 
in the second year; religious instruction, nature studies, 
geography, history, — especially that of modern times, 
— mathematics, the elements of physics and chemistry, 
drawing and singing, are to be pursued throughout the 
course. Instruction in modern languages — English 
and French — is to be given to those pupils who intend 
to enter the higher grades. 

In the second, or intermediate course, there is to be 
taught the foundation of political economy, the ele- 
ments of jDhysics and chemistry, natural history, mod- 
ern German literature, religion, German history, modern 
English and French literature, drawing, music, and such 
technical subjects as are needed to prepare the students 
for technical trades or for business. 



REFORMS 2 1 5 

The highest course is to embrace subjects now pur- 
sued in the university, placing especial emphasis upon 
modern languages and literature. German translations 
of the ancient classics are to be read. Only those 
students who pursue a special course in theology or 
philology are to receive instruction in Latin and Greek. 

It should be said that the " New German School," 
which in some respects departs greatly from the schools 
of the present, is not likely to exist in theory only, 
since money has been subscribed for the establishment 
of a school having all the essential features recom- 
mended by Dr. Goring. 



2l6 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 



CHAPTER XV 

AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 

In this chapter I shall attempt to answer the ques- 
tion which is frequently asked : How does our system 
of schools compare with that of Germany, and what 
useful lessons, if any, relating to public school educa- 
tion may we learn from that country ? 

First, however, there is to be met the question 
whether a knowledge of the educational practices of 
Influence of Other nations will help us to improve our 
Example. system and methods of education ? Upon 
this question there seems to be a wide difference of 
opinion. On the one hand it is asserted that no two 
nations have the same conditions of life, — either social 
or civil, — that the schools of a nation are a growth 
peculiar to itself, as are its laws and customs, and 
therefore that they can be perfected only by trial and 
experience under the peculiar conditions of their origin 
and existence. On the other hand it is urged that the 
universality of the needs of men as human beings 
should be recognized ; and as the highest end of educa- 
tion is to make good and wise men rather than citizens 
of any particular state, or workers at any given calling, 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 21/ 

there should be some common means pursued by which 

' this highest and common end is reached. A knowl- 

, edge of the common means thus employed serves a 

1 double purpose : first, in proving the efficacy of true 

theories of education ; and secondly, in guarding 

against false ones. Thus the successes and mistakes 

of one people may be used for the benefit of all others. 

The history of education shows that this principle of 

k:o-operation or the transmission of theories through 

Jiheir embodied practices has been a potent factor in 

t he development of true methods of education. It 

-vivas recognized in the times of Ratich, Comenius, and 

]i?estalozzi, when hundreds of teachers from various 

:ountries flocked to see the practical working of 

heories which were not fully understood or believed. 

^And when we reflect upon the influence of the imper- 

ifect and crude attempts of these men to embody in 

j^practice theories which, without such practice, might 

jifiave fallen upon dull ears, — an influence which has 

(Extended throughout the civilized world, — we cannot 

-resist the conclusion, not only that it is useful for one 

^nation to study the practices of other nations, but that 

'it is the surest and best way of extending and perfect- 

I ing the science as well as the art of education. 

In seeking to find where we may learn most of that 
which will be useful in improving our schools, we natu- 
rally turn to the countries where lived the great re- 
formers whose names I have just given, and where 



I 



2l8 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

the fiercest pedagogical conflicts have been waged. In 
these countries — Germany, Austria, and 

Educational 

Systems of Switzerland — we find a system of educa- I 

Germany, . . . _ , . . , i 

Austria, and tion Scientific and thorough in its cnaracter, 

Switzerland. i i • -^ i -r • -i. 

broad m its scope, and uniiorm in its prac- 
tices. So good, indeed, are the schools of these coun- | 
tries that they are constantly visited by foreigners who ' 
are either drawn thither by professional interest, or iM 
sent officially to study their system and to observe 
their methodsc 

Nor are the interest and zeal in behalf of the school 
new to the German people. Ever since the Reforma ' 
tion, the government has encouraged the establish-t;. 
ment of institutions of learning of every kind to such ^> 

an extent as to call to the service of elemen- s- 

Influence of 

Educational tary education the best thought of the ' 
Leaders. 

country. True, that thought has been er- - 

ratic and at times abnormal in its application, yet it has 3 

always been vigorous and powerful, whether exercised -' 

in the severe, classical formalism of Trotzendorf anols 

Sturm, or in the free naturalism of Comenius and ^ 

Basedow. The experience, therefore, of Germany in 

the management of her schools has been a thoughtful 

one ; and as such it commands our respect, and invites 

our attention to some features of their system of 

schools in contrast with some of our own. 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 2ig 

I. ORGANIZATION. 

Whatever may be said of the superiority of natural 
over acquired qualifications for the teachers' calling, no 
one, I suppose, will doubt the general state- ^^ ^ 
ment that the efficiency of teachers is en- of Teachers. 
I hanced by special preparation for their work. That 
\ being conceded, we turn to inquire how much so- 
called professional preparation is demanded of teachers 
in the United States. From a recent report of the 
Commissioner of Education ^ it will be seen that in 
California, Illinois, Kansas, New Hampshire, New 
York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Vermont, and 
Wisconsin — the only States making full reports — 
only one teacher out of every seventeen was in 1886 
a graduate of a normal school. A larger proportion, 
^ or about twelve per cent, of all teachers employed 
are reported as having attended a normal school. 
f These States, doubtless, have other training-schools 
in which some of the teachers have received more 
or less professional training. Making a liberal allow- 
I ance for the number attending such schools, and for 
the probable advance that has been made, it is safe 
to say that not more than one-fourth of the present 
I teachers of the above-named States have had any pro- 
fessional preparation for their work. The character of 
elementary education in these States is certainly as high 

1 Report of 1886-87, p. 453. 



220 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

as it is in the rest of the Union. It may be said, there- 
fore, that as many as three-fourths of all the teachers 
of this country at the present time entered upon their 
work without the slightest theoretical knowledge of the 
science or art of teaching. In other words, a majority 
of the people of the country regard teaching as less of 
an art than carpentry or horse-shoeing, for which some 
preparation at least is thought to be necessary. When 
it is considered that a large proportion of these un- 
trained teachers are new to their work every year, the 
seriousness of the matter becomes apparent. The 
enormous waste of money which is occasioned by I 
the misdirected energies of this army of novices is of j 
little consequence beside the irreparable injury which i ^ 
their experiments and mistakes cause to the children. ^ ^ 

To raise this low standard of requirements for teach- ., , 
ing to the standard which Germany has set ^ will be no ^ . 
easy matter ; but that it must be done before we can .. , 
seriously make a comparison of the schools of the two 5 . 
countries, or even before we can claim that there is a ^ „ 
profession of teaching in this country, is beyond ques- 
tion. 

Our normal schools should demand a higher degree 
of scholarship for admission than they now demand. 
Normal or else their courses of study should be 

Course. broader and more extended than they are 

in most States of the Union. There should also be 

1 For Germany's requirements see page 



\ 



I' 



I 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 221 



given in the normal course a greater opportunity for 
professional practice than is now given. Graduation 
from such a course, or its equivalent, should be required 
for the position of teacher in all elementary Needful 
schools. Of the secondary school teachers ments7o"r 
there should be demanded, in addition to T^^-ching. 
graduation from college, at least one year of profes- 
I sional training. 

To establish this high, or an equally high, standard of 
requirements for teaching is the duty of the state. 
Wherever in the state there is inability to reach it, 
assistance should be given ; and wherever in the state 
'there is unwillingness to reach it, force should be 
)Used. If such a policy should be opposed on account 
jof a fear of centralization, let it be remembered that 
centralization is dangerous only as the central power 
usurps or takes away individual and local rights. It is 
plain to see that the delegation of this power to the 

i state protects in the best possible way the rights of 
both individuals and separate localities. 
Efficient service depends not only upon intelligent 
effort, but also upon a continuance of that effort. A 

frequently changing personality in any de- 
Permanence 

partment of industry means a loss in unity of Teaching 

Force, 
of purpose and effort, and consequent weak- 
ness. This is especially true in teaching, which 
requires united and harmonious efforts toward a com- 
mon purpose. If we step to-day into any one of the 



222 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

one hundred thousand schoolrooms in Germany, we shall j 
find a teacher who feels that he is engaged in his life- 
work, and in a large proportion of those schoolrooms 
we shall find teachers who have the practical assur- 
ance of their government, that their continuance in 
office depends only upon good behavior and faithful 
service. Very rarely are the permanently elected 
teachers changed from the position to which they are 
appointed, and more rarely still are they dismissed | 
from service. 

Aside from the efficiency of these professional 
workers, their permanence of place makes their efforts 
felt in a way not known in a system of constant changes 
like ours. From recent statistics^ we learn that an 
average of twenty-six changes occurs in the United 
States yearly in every one hundred teachers* positions ; 
that is, the average length of the teacher's service is 
less than four years. In some quarters the rule is to 
" make a change " every term, the term consisting of 
ten or twelve weeks. So accustomed are we to a want 
of permanency in the teacher's position, that we regard 
it not out of place for a young woman to make it a con- 
venient waiting-place for matrimony, or for a young man 
to use it as a stepping-stone to one of the so-called 
learned professions. What other business would per- 
mit such a large " tramp " element to impair its effi- 
ciency, or lower its standard of effective usefulness ? 

1 Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1886-87, P* 7'* 



!^1 

AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 223 

I i 

fifj In this matter, as in that of the qualifications of 
i \i teachers, the state should take a decided stand. Havins: 
) demanded of teachers the best possible preparation for 
L their work, the state should give them, or Tenure of 
jl oblige the municipalities to give them, a per- office. 
' 'j manent tenure of office during good behavior, good 
A health, and professional faithfulness. In this act of 
(jjustice to teachers there is found the only safeguard 
I against the evils of frequent changes of teachers on the 
I one hand, and of political wire-pulling on the other. 
'f A good plan of studies is to the teacher what the 
^Ikhart and compass are to the navigator. By its aid 
rogress in the right direction may be meas- pi^^of 
red ; without it there is likely to be much studies. 
Ivork done which is aimless and useless, if, indeed, it is 
pot absolutely injurious. The making of a good plan of 
studies implies not only a knowledge of the subjects to 
^ pe studied, but also such acquaintance with the powers 
\ 4nd capacities of the growing mind as to know the 
I oroper sequence of subjects, and the relative amount of 
)work to be done in successive periods. Such knowl- 
1 ledge, it must be admitted, is scientific, and can be 
'^acquired only by long and varied experience. 
\$) In many parts of the United States the arrangement 
|i of a plan of studies is left to the local board, — a board 
which is made up of men who can, it may be, run a 
farm or factory, but who have no special fitness to direct 
teachers in respect to subjects of study. As a conse- 



224 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

quence there are many towns which have no plan of 
studies for their schools, absolutely no guide to what is 
expected to be done, beyond the wishes of parents who 
are ambitious for their children to go through or over 
many books. This may not be less harmful than a faith- 
ful adherence to the requirements of some plans which 
are made by persons wholly unfit to make them. And . 
all these hindrances to good and systematic work are I' 
but little worse than the constantly changing courses I 
of studies which ambitious school committees, superin-' 
tendents, and principals are fond of putting out as 
essential improvements over what has preceded, or 
as proofs of their ability as reformers. i 

Instead of these doubtful guides, which are as likely 
to be incorrect as correct, and which are subject tc 
frequent changes, there should be a general plan foi 
each grade of schools, made and sanctioned by high 
professional authority, and authorized as a guide for/ 
every- school in the state. These plans should be sub- 
ject to such enlargement and explanations as local! 
superintendents or principals may think necessary. ^ 
Thus we should follow in the main the policy of Ger- j 
many, whose plans of study may be said to be the ' 
result of the best educational thought of the state : 
on the one hand so well defined as to make the 
teacher's duty clear, and on the other hand so unre- 
stricted as to leave much freedom and independence of 
action. 



l\ 



k 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 22$ 

i' In estimating the value of an educational system, 
\' jthe attendance of children upon the schools should not 
,^, (be left out of the account. No school sys- ^^^^^i 
\ Item can be said to be good which is not Attendance, 
supported by laws requiring a certain standard of edu- 
cation for all. 

How far the practice of many parts of our country 

s from this standard appears from statistics which 

,how that in twenty-one States there are no compul- 

:^ory laws of school attendance, and that in other 

States, according to the Commissioner of Education,^ 

' ''in many instances the compulsory attendance law, if 

' ot actually a dead letter, is practically so." In many 

i the Northern States where the percentage of attend- 

^lice is the highest there is gross neglect, not only in 

^forcing the laws of compulsory attendance upon the 

Schools, but also in providing proper truant schools. 

vhis neglect is due largely to the fact that the execu- 

/ ^on of the laws is left to local authorities, who for 

^ Political and social reasons fail to do their duty. Mem.- 

'^ers of the school board do not stand a good chance 

hr re-election who by an enforcement of the law entail 

extra expense upon the town ; and they are few, espe- 

;:ially in country towns, who are willing to proceed 

against a neighbor, or a neighbor's children, in case of 

a violation of the law. 

To prevent the evil of illiteracy, as well as the enor- 

1 Report, 1886 S7, p. 56, 



[ 



I 



226 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 1 

mous waste of money, which our records of school 
P J ^ attendance imply, is a matter of no small 
Laws. concern, and should receive the immediate 

attention of both state and nation. It may not be 
possible for us to adopt the same rigorous policy of 
coercion which Germany enforces with her strong 
military spirit, and with her complete state police sys- 
tem. But that we should follow her example of pro- 
tecting the rights of children, so far, at least, as to 
make school attendance compulsory up to a certain^ 
age, must be admitted, especially when we consider ^^ 
the dangers of an ignorant citizenship in a government 
like ours. Having made these compulsory laws we 
should see to it that the means of executing them ar'' 
as effective as are the means of executing other law 
upon the statute book. 

Experience has proved the necessity of wise super 
vision in most departments of labor ; and nowhere h 
School ^^^ necessity more apparent than in a com 

Supervision, pj^^ system of schools, involving various 
interests and requiring great technical skill. German) 
has for many years observed this principle in the man- 
agement of her schools, and the results clearly demon- 
strate its importance. In that country the organization 
of the schools, the examination of teachers, the criti-"^ 
cism and direction in methods of teaching, in short, all 
duties involving wisdom and skill, are given mainly into 
the hands of professional men.^ 

2 For details in the System of Supervision, see p. 4. 






\ AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 22/ 

I 

No uniform method of school supervision is practised 
[in this country; each state, and in some states each 
'I town, determining the methods to be employed. The 
^ J schools of most of the cities, and of some of the large 
1 towns, are well supervised by skilled superintendents, 
I who are appointed on account of their superior qualifica- 
tions. The weak points in the supervision elsewhere, 
' vhich means, of course, in the larger part of the country, 
, .re quite apparent to all who know the worth of intelli- 
t f^ent direction in school affairs. In some sections there 
is absolutely no supervision of the schools other than 
what is done by members of school boards, who, as a 
>fule, have little time to attend to the duties of their 
:)ffice, and who are likely to have neither natural nor 
acquired fitness to criticise and direct the teachers' 
special work. In other sections county superintendents 
are either appointed by a board, or elected by popular 
vote. Some of these persons are, doubtless, efficient 
supervisors ; but their field of labor is frequently so 
>i large as to prevent their service from being felt to any 
'appreciable degree in the schools. In general it may 
be said, therefore, that a greater part of the school 
^ supervision of this country is ineffectual because of the 
f largeness of the supervisor's field of labor, or of his 
* dependence in election to and retention in office upon 
i the will of the people, or of his want of proper qualifi- 
/ cations to perform the duties of his office. 

Important as is a recognition of the value of skilled 



228 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

or professional supervision, the perception of its prov-|i| 
ince and limitations is no less so. Germany's policy] 
of having the v/ork of teachers guided wisely, without 
having it cramped and narrowed, is a policy which 
America might adopt with profit to her schools. I 
Skilled supervision, which should be provided by law, } 
implies wisdom, — the wisdom which can be possessed- 
only by /r^^j"^"/^;^^/ superintendents. f 



II. TEACHERS AND TEACHING. 

Having considered the conditions under which thej ^ 
schools are maintained, and some possible reforms of 
those conditions suggested by Germany's experience) •• 
we have next to inquire what lessons intimately con-P' 
nected with the work of the schoolroom may be learned^' 
from Germany's practice. ; 

The central object of interest and of profitable study r 
is the teacher, whose influence in educational affairs isjj 
Influence of deservedly strong. This influence is notj- 
the Teacher, ^ewly acquired. It is an inheritance fromls 
the past, a transmission of powers won by the courage,!^ 
zeal, and intellectual strength of the teachers of three 
centuries. Beginning with the Reformation, — the time 
from which the present school system of Germany' 
dates, — the teacher has filled a prominent place in all 
educational reforms ; not only in promulgating new phil- 
osophies and methods of teaching, but in putting into 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 229 

practice new courses of study, in calling forth for educa- 
Ition the active interest of princes and people, and, 
whenever it was necessary, in shaping legislation rela- 
ting to education both high and low. It is this inherit- 
' rv ance of influence in educational affairs into which the 
L A German teacher of to-day has come ; and most worthily, 
\ \as I believe, does he use and keep it. 
I { He does not wait for writers of occasional and sensa- 
Itional articles to shape public opinion, — writers whose 
/^criticisms of the schools rest on no knowledge of their 
^'condition, and whose conception of their needs has not 
the basis of philosophy or experience. Neither does 
he allow newly fledged members of school boards to 
initiate schemes of reform which may not have merit 
enough to last through a single administration. The 
German teacher does not take his cue from such men, 
nor does he wait to take his cue from anybody. He 
prefers to have the first as well as last word in all ques- 
tions of reform, whether it be in methods, programmes, 
I or organization. To him belongs, almost exclusively, 
♦the privilege of educating the public in school affairs 
through the public press. He uses professional asso- 
Iciation meetings, of which there are many, in discussing 
questions of reform, and he exercises the right of peti- 
' tion to the government all the more readily because he 
knows that his petition will receive consideration. 

The present notable measures of reform of higher 
education had their rise in associations of teachers who 



I 



230 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

formulated their opinions two years ago in a monster » 
petition of over twenty thousand signers to the Prussian 
Diet. Whether it was this petition which caused the 
appointment of the recent commission in Prussia, it is 
hard to say ; yet there can be no doubt that the school- 
masters themselves began the discussion of questions 
considered in the conference last December, and the 
government's confidence in their ability to pass judg- 
ment upon the subjects presented was shown in the 
large number of schoolmen appointed to serve on the.\ 
commission. 

The influence of the teachers in inaugurating reforms 
and in guiding legislation is due partly to the fact that 
they are, upon main issues of administration, clear and 
united, partly because they insist upon being heard, and 
partly because their action is pointed and systematic. 
I well remember the earnestness and point of a discus- i 
sion carried on by a village association in Southern [ 
Germany. The association consisted of eight men, — 
all the teachers of the town. The subject was manual 
training. Two or three meetings had been held pre- 
viously, and the conclusions of the association were care- 1 
fully noted in a series of statements, after being discussed 
and voted upon. These conclusions were to be sent to 
a higher body which was to formulate all conclusions 
received, and print them in what is called a Year Book. 
Who can doubt that conclusions thus reached would and 
should have great weight in the counsels of the Nation ? 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 23 1 

It is influence of this kind which our American 
schools most need. Not only do teachers fail to make 
themselves felt, as they should be felt, in certain features 
of school legislation, but they are obliged frequently 
to give way to the politician in matters purely profes- 
sional. In some places promotions are made, examina- 
tions are conducted, and even courses of studies are 
arranged, by persons who can lay no claim to profes- 
sional knowledge. 

Whatever the cause of the teacher's want of influence 
in directing educational affairs in this country, certain 
it is, that so long as the schools are controlled by politi- 
cians, independent of professional advice, there will be 
poor schools and a waste of money. It is to be hoped 
that the practice of Germany in heeding the advice of 
teachers in all matters relating to education will in good 
time become the settled policy of all parts of this coun- 
try. That time may come when the high requirements 
for teaching already spoken of have been fully met. 

I have spoken of the teacher's influence in Germany 
in what may be called outside affairs. In the school- 
room his personality is even more marked. Personality 
Here we learn the secret of his power, which iVt^eSdioo^ 
is that he is in earnest in carrying out a pur- "°™- 
pose. That is what most impresses visitors from abroad. 
They may not always think the purpose a good one ; but 
the value of a well-defined purpose is clearly seen, es- 
pecially when behind that purpose — as is generally the 



232 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

case in Germany — there are both intelligence and pro- 
fessional training. Ask any teacher of the elementary 
or secondary schools in Germany the reason for any 
particular method or practice, and you will find him 
ready with an answer, given in a way which leaves no 
doubt as to his sincerity, even though he does not con- 
vince you of the wisdom of his course. 

One general purpose quite manifest in schools of all 
grades is that of leading the children to think for 
themselves by the use of objects and pic- 
tics of tures, and by questioning. The latter fea- 

ture of the recitation is particularly noticeable. 
The questions asked are not strictly Socratic, but they 
are of such a character as to impress or to develop 
ideas. When they are of the latter kind they are 
called ** development questions," leading the pupils to 
pass from the known to the unknown, or to discover an 
effect from a known cause. 

Another characteristic of the work of German 
teachers is the frequency of giving reviews. The 
salient points of previous lessons are frequently re- 
viewed, especially those points which have some rela- 
tion to the subject in hand. The reason for some of 
the reviews seems to be twofold — first, to refresh the 
pupils' memory, and secondly, to present all parts of a 
given subject in their logical relation. 

In all information studies — history, geography, 
reading, and natural history — the teachers show that 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 233 

they have a large fund of information which is always 
ready for use in the recitation. The necessity of the 
teacher's proficiency in this regard is, perhaps, not so 
great in America where the text-book is supposed to 
give much needed information ; yet the great interest 
which is awakened in the recitation whenever such 
information is given by the teacher, and the increased 
confidence and power which such communication gives, 
are advantages which our American teachers would do 
well to consider. 

Perhaps the most noticeable difference between 
recitations here and in Germany, is in the manner of 
the teacher. In Germany the teacher always stands 
and manifests a vigorous, watchful interest, both in the 
subject matter and in the pupils. I would not have 
our teachers adopt the same vigorous means of secur- 
ing interest and exactness as are sometimes employed 
by German teachers, but I wish they could have some 
of their enthusiasm in the schoolroom. 

There should be provided by the state or municipal- 
ity far more apparatus than is now generally provided 

for the schools. In large graded schools 

Apparatus, 
the apparatus should be conveniently located 

for use in a room provided for the purpose. 

There should be in convenient places for the benefit 

of teachers, museums containing all kinds of apparatus, 

text-books, and reference books. It is to 

Museums. 

our shame that we have not lon^ ere this 



234 SCHOOLS OF GERMANY 

established institutions of this kind, which have been 
found in other countries of such great practical value to 
teachers. 

It may not be advisable to include in our courses 
of studies all the branches of instruction which are 
Needed taught in Germany ; but, even in this re- 

changesm spect, we may 2:et some assistance from 

Subjects of t" ' ■/ o 

Instruction. German courses. Nature and elementary 
science lessons, for example, have as prominent a place 
in the elementary school programmes of Germany, as 
arithmetic or geography have, and no good reason can 
be given why they should not have equal prominence 
in our programmes. With the possible exception of 
reading and writing they are, when properly taught, the 
most valuable subjects' in the elementary school course. 
Two or three hours a week, therefore, should be given 
to lessons upon plants, animals, and minerals in the 
lower and middle grades, supplemented by elementary 
physics or chemistry in the higher grades. 

The interest which the German boys of the people's 
schools manifest in the study of geometry, is an indi- 
cation of the place which that study may have in our 
grammar school course, first, in supplementing the study 
of form in the lower grades, and secondly, in accompany- 
ing the study of arithmetic in the higher. 

The introduction of these subjects of instruction 
would necessitate lessening the amount required in 
other subjects, and that can best be done, perhaps, in 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 235 

arithmetic and geography, which are at present over- 
loaded with useless details. 

When we consider the time that is frequently taken 
to complete the grammar school course, and the appar- 
ent advantage which German children possess in having 
a short preparatory course for the high school, it seems 
advisable to rearrange our classification or courses of 
studies, so as to permit pupils to begin earlier than 
they now do the direct preparation for a special classical 
or scientific course. 

Following the lead of Germany in placing great 
emphasis upon the study of the mother-tongue, we should 
do far more in English in all grades than is generally 
done in respect to both language and literature. 

Again, more time than is now generally allowed should 
be given in our high schools to a single science. 
Instead of a one year course in chemistry, for example, 
there should be a course of three or four years, so as to 
give time to develop a scientific spirit and to make the 
study of practical worth. 

And finally, Germany's example of giving all the 
children of the schools a regular, methodical, and con- 
tinuous course in physical training may well be fol- 
lowed by us. 

In what I have said of the German schools I have 
felt called upon to emphasize their good f ea- Elements of 
tures only. With such elements of strength, j^Gg^^man 
we should expect to find some elements of Schools. 



236 SCHOOLS OF GERMANV 

weakness. These faults have their origin in the ends or 
purposes of a people who are intellectually strong, and 
whose political safety lies in keeping up a military 
spirit. 

Few text-books are used in the elementary schools of 
Germany, — fewer, I believe, than is good for the pupils, 
— firsty because a knowledge of the use of books and a 
good habit of using them are most valuable to people 
of any walk in life, and secondly ^ because a proper use 
of them prevents too great dependence upon the teacher. 
The programmes of graded schools are so arranged as 
to prevent pupils from studying independently and 
without interruption in school ; and the constant talk- 
ing of teachers, however stimulating it may be to 
pupils, is not without its bad effects. Moreover, the 
demands upon pupils, especially in the high schools, 
are frequently so great as to make school work a grind- 
ing burden, and so intensive as to preclude opportunities 
for general culture. 

Again, so far as I could learn, the cultivation of the 
will is sadly neglected in many of the schools of Ger- 
many. The higher forms of self-control and self- 
respect are lost sight of in discipline, and obedience is 
often exacted by the severest means. In these particu- 
lars, at least, the teachers of Germany can learn wisdom 
from us. Perhaps they will be willing to do so when 
the menacing armies upon either side of their country 
are disbanded, and when circumstances no longer com- 



AMERICAN AND GERMAN SCHOOLS 237 

pel them to train their children for the stern conflicts 
of war. 

One word, in closing, upon our own prospects for the 
future : I have said that our schools are poor in com- 
parison with the schools of Germany. And condition and 
vet, I believe I am not inconsistent in say- ^^o^pectsof 

•' ' -^ American 

ing that the best we have are better for us Schools, 
than the best that exist in Germany would be. The 
trouble is, our very good schools are far too few. 
Instead of finding good schools everywhere, as we 
do in Germany, in the country as well as in the city, 
and in all parts of each, we are obliged in this country 
to make a hunt for them, even in the most favored 
places. When they shall be found not the exception, 
but the rule, not depending upon exceptional condi- 
tions, but resulting from a wisely planned organization, 
then we shall not have to sit at the feet of Germany 
as learners, but we can bid the teachers of that country 
come to us, and learn how to train boys and girls into 
intelligent, self-respecting, self-ruling, and God-fearing 
men and women. It is for American teachers to 
work steadily toward the accomplishment of this much- 
desired end. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 





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